Factors That Influence Exchange Rates Essay Example for Free

Factors That Influence Exchange Rates Essay Aside from factors such as interest rates and inflation, the exchange rate is one of the most important determinants of a countrys relative level of economic health. Exchange rates play a vital role in a countrys level of trade, which is critical to most every free market economy in the world. For this reason, exchange rates are among the most watched, analyzed and governmentally manipulated economic measures. But exchange rates matter on a smaller scale as well: they impact the real return of an investors portfolio. Here we look at some of the major forces behind exchange rate movements. A higher currency makes a countrys exports more expensive and imports cheaper in foreign markets; a lower currency makes a countrys exports cheaper and its imports more expensive in foreign markets. A higher exchange rate can be expected to lower the countrys balance of trade, while a lower exchange rate would increase it. Determinants of Exchange Rates Numerous factors determine exchange rates, and all are related to the trading relationship between two countries. Remember, exchange rates are relative, and are expressed as a comparison of the currencies of two countries. The following are some of the principal determinants of the exchange rate between two countries. Note that these factors are in no particular order; like many aspects of economics, the relative importance of these factors is subject to much debate. 1. Differentials in Inflation;-As a general rule, a country with a consistently lower inflation rate exhibits a rising currency value, as its purchasing power increases relative to other currencies. During the last half of the twentieth century, the countries with low inflation included Japan, Germany and Switzerland, while the U.S. and Canada achieved low inflation only later. Those countries with higher inflation typically see depreciation in their currency in relation to the currencies of their trading partners. This is also usually accompanied by higher interest rates. 2. Differentials in Interest Rates;-Interest rates, inflation and exchange rates are all highly correlated. By manipulating interest rates, central banks exert influence over both inflation and exchange rates, and changing interest rates impact inflation and currency values. Higher interest rates offer lenders in an economy a higher return relative to other countries. Therefore, higher interest rates attract foreign capital and cause the exchange rate to rise. The impact of higher interest rates is mitigated, however, if inflation in the country is much higher than in others, or if additional factors serve to drive the currency down. The opposite relationship exists for decreasing interest rates that is, lower interest rates tend to decrease exchange rates. 3. Current-Account Deficits;-The current account is the balance of trade between a country and its trading partners, reflecting all payments between countries for goods, services, interest and dividends. A deficit in the current account shows the country is spending more on foreign trade than it is earning, and that it is borrowing capital from foreign sources to make up the deficit. In other words, the country requires more foreign currency than it receives through sales of exports, and it supplies more of its own currency than foreigners demand for its products. The excess demand for foreign currency lowers the countrys exchange rate until domestic goods and services are cheap enough for foreigners, and foreign assets are too expensive to generate sales for domestic interests. 4. Public Debt;-Countries will engage in large-scale deficit financing to pay for public sector projects and governmental funding. While such activity stimulates the domestic economy, nations with large public deficits and debts are less attractive to foreign investors. The reason? A large debt encourages inflation, and if inflation is high, the debt will be serviced and ultimately paid off with cheaper real dollars in the future. In the worst case scenario, a government may print money to pay part of a large debt, but increasing the money supply inevitably causes inflation. Moreover, if a government is not able to service its deficit through domestic means (selling domestic bonds, increasing the money supply), then it must increase the supply of securities for sale to foreigners, thereby lowering their prices. Finally, a large debt may prove worrisome to foreigners if they believe the country risks defaulting on its obligations. Foreigners will be less willing to own securities denominated in that currency if the risk of default is great. For this reason, the countrys debt rating (as determined by Moodys or Standard Poors, for example) is a crucial determinant of its exchange rate. 5. Terms of Trade;-A ratio comparing export prices to import prices, the terms of trade is related to current accounts and the balance of payments. If the price of a countrys exports rises by a greater rate than that of its imports, its terms of trade have favorably improved. Increasing terms of trade shows greater demand for the countrys exports. This, in turn, results in rising revenues from exports, which provides increased demand for the countrys currency (and an increase in the currencys value). If the price of exports rises by a smaller rate than that of its imports, the currencys value will decrease in relation to its trading partners. 6. Political Stability and Economic Performance;-Foreign investors inevitably seek out stable countries with strong economic performance in which to invest their capital. A country with such positive attributes will draw investment funds away from other countries perceived to have more political and economic risk. Political turmoil, for example, can cause a loss of confidence in a currency and a movement of capital to the currencies of more stable countries. Conclusion The exchange rate of the currency in which a portfolio holds the bulk of its investments determines that portfolios real return. A declining exchange rate obviously decreases the purchasing power of income and capital gains derived from any returns. Moreover, the exchange rate influences other income factors such as interest rates, inflation and even capital gains from domestic securities. While exchange rates are determined by numerous complex factors that often leave even the most experienced economists flummoxed, investors should still have some understanding of how currency values and exchange rates play an important role in the rate of return on their investments.

Social interaction and the Internet in Asia Essay Example for Free

Social interaction and the Internet in Asia Essay The abstract is excellently presented, and sheds the light onto the study purpose. The author used the abstract to briefly justify the choice of the research country (Singapore). Introduction In the introduction, the author justified the need for such research by the fact that â€Å"little empirical research had been done outside of Europe and the USA†. The author has clearly identified the aim of the research in the form of a question: â€Å"what is the Internet usage pattern of young Singaporeans and what is the extent of its impact on their social lives? † Literature review The author did not perform a detailed literature review due to the absence of sufficient relevant literary sources related to the topic of research. The author summarised the results of the previous studies to create the relevant theoretical basis for her research. Research question The author was not very specific in determining the research question. She limited her study by investigating the social interactions between young Singaporeans and the impact of Internet upon their socialisation. Trying to be very specific, the author suggested that it would be interesting to research, whether young Singaporeans preferred Internet socialisation to traditional means of social interaction. Methodology The author did not create any clear hypotheses, and did not predict any possible research outcomes. The choice of respondents was mainly based on their age (between 15 and 30), without any specific attention to their gender or social position. However, it was important that all of them studied in Universities and were provided with individual Internet accounts. The author used questionnaires which are traditional methods of qualitative analysis. Findings Research findings were presented in qualitative and quantitative form. The author did not mention any significant problems encountered in analysing and evaluating the research findings. The author did not perform profound statistical analysis, but used simple mathematical interpretations of her results as the basis for qualitative research. By quoting interviews with several research participants, the author of the article significantly increased the relevance of the research results. References All in-text citations were referenced in bibliography. The reference list mainly included primary sources, among which previous researches in the area of Internet and communication prevailed. Summary The analysed study is the excellent basis for the further research in the area of communication and social sciences. The article determines the future directions in investigating the socialisation processes under the impact of Internet technologies. New for old? Converging media and e-mail practices in the workplace Abstract The aim of the discussed research was to investigate the impact of e-mail applications on the workplace practices through the three different perspectives: â€Å"e-mail as a medium, e-mail as a set of practices, and e-mail as speech versus writing† (Yell, 2003). The author used the abstract to create the system of questions, which had to be answered during the research process. Introduction The topic of the research was excellently specified in the introduction, and was not too broad. The author also delineated specific theories, on which the research had to be based (Bourdieu’s concepts of dispositions and the habitus, and Schirato and Yell’s concept of cultural literacy). Literature review The author did not use any formal framework for literature review. Moreover, the article lacked any theoretical justification of the study. A separate â€Å"background† chapter provided the reader only with a surface understanding of the research topic, and was not referred to any significant theoretical perspectives. Research question The researcher sought to identify, what means research participants would choose to fulfill a range of tasks and to communicate at workplace. The author has clearly determined the research question and narrowed her research as determined in the article’s abstract. Methodology The methods of the research were clearly identified in the background section of the article: the use of interviews had to ensure validity of research findings, but could potentially decrease the generalisability of research results. The age of participants was between 30 and 65, and they were asked to describe their communication and work preferences in terms of emails or other communication strategies. The author did not conceal statistical insignificance of the research sample, and has concentrated upon determining qualitative tendencies and validity of the communication choices made by participants. Findings Yell (2003) presented research findings in the form of qualitative assessment. The use of tables was called for increasing the generalisability of interviews, but the author did not specify whether she had encountered any significant problems in evaluating the research results. The discussion section of the research was presented in the form of several small chapters, with each devoted to a separate research perspective. There is no reason to doubt the validity and reliability of research findings due to the fact that interviews are relatively unbiased tools of qualitative research. The author constantly linked research findings to the theoretical perspectives identified in the introduction, which made the discussion relevant and theoretically justified. References All in-text citations were included into the list of references at the end of the article. Summary Despite the lack of theoretical basis, the author performed profound research of the communication preferences among workers. The results of the study can be further refined by linking them to certain theoretical perspective. The researcher has generalised the research findings and pointed out the most important aspects of the study, without shedding the light onto potential applications of the research results. The author has identified important contradictions in describing e-mail as homogeneous medium, and has suggested that e-mail had to be analysed from multiple perspectives. Organisational communication satisfaction in the virtual workplace Abstract The abstract was excellently structured. It served a brief summary of the research, research findings, implications, and controversies. Introduction The authors did not elaborate on theoretical or practical research implications in the introduction; the introduction served a brief summary of the similar research works. The potential challenges of the virtual workplace were identified and analysed in a separate section of the paper. Literature review The author did not perform any formal literature review. The authors did not make any predictions or suggestions towards the future research outcomes, but identified the set of variables drawn from the previous surveys. That set of variables was later used to analyse and interpret the research findings. Research question The authors determined the research question in the article’s abstract: â€Å"to compare the levels of communication satisfaction between virtual workplace and traditional employers in a single firm. † This research question was later analysed through the pre-determined set of variables. Methodology Akkirman and Harris used the set of hypotheses based on the previous studies and the research survey conducted â€Å"in the Turkish subsidiary of an international company based in Germany†. The distinguishing feature of the research article was in that the authors had identified the exact set of variables closely tied to their hypotheses: communication climate, organisational integration, etc. (Akkirman Harris, 2005). Findings The research findings were presented in quantitative form, in the form of tables, and statistical analysis. The results were assessed in a concise and organised manner, with each variable discussed and evaluated separately. In this manner, the researchers have explained each variable identified in the research methodology section. References The reference list included all in-text citations, as well as the Appendix with the research survey questionnaire. This questionnaire helped objectively evaluate the relevance and validity of survey results. Summary The advantageous feature of the article is in the fact that the researchers discussed and evaluated the research results in the structured form: implications and limitations of the research were also analysed. As the results of the research were contrary to the majority of previous studies, the authors emphasised the most important variables to be researched in the future studies (the role of transition and support in the level of satisfaction among virtual office workers). The authors of the article summarised their findings in conclusion, but did not identify any problems or biases they faced during the research and evaluation process. Intercultural communication competence and managerial functions within the Australian hospitality industry Abstract The abstract was brief and written in concise manner. The authors briefly delineated major theoretical foundations of the future research. Introduction The aim of the research was very clearly identified in the introductory section of the article. The authors defined the major terms to be used in the study, making the research clear and understandable to the reader. Literature review The theoretical perspectives constituted the significant portion of the article, and initially made it difficult to identify the major theoretical directions which were used in the research. It seems that the authors have gathered all information available on the topic, without specifying the most important data, and the exact theoretical basis of research. Theoretical background of intercultural communication was presented from different perspectives (cultural, psychological, anthropological, etc. ), which have created a confused theoretical image of the study. Ultimately, the researchers neither made theoretical predictions, nor drew hypotheses from previous studies. Research question The authors of the research sought to consider the nature of intercultural communication competence in the Australian hospitality industry. Methodology The authors have limited their research methodology to in-depth analysis of interviews and organisational documentation, ethnomethodology, and historical analysis. In addition, the authors did not inform the readers about the number and characteristics of the research sample. A number of important research variables were identified only in the section devoted to the discussion of interpretive findings. Findings The research findings were interpreted through the prism of qualitative analysis, but as no data on the research sample was available, it was difficult to evaluate the validity and reliability of the research results. It should be pointed out that the authors have discussed implications of their research for management training. Those implications could make their research results applicable, if their validity could be objectively assessed. The conclusion of the article was aimed at summarising the major research findings, and emphasising the limitations of the study: â€Å"the Australian hospitality managers in this study were found to have shortcomings in their ability to apply intercultural communication competence to key managerial functions† (Saunders Sauee, 2000). References All in-text citations were referenced in bibliography. The authors listed all literature sources in alphabetical order. Summary The research could create solid basis for future practical investigations if the theoretical perspectives were clearer. Research findings suggested that intercultural communication in the hospitality industry should be linked to a single theoretical perspective, that could make future researches more transparent and theoretically justified. Organisational websites. How and how well do they communicate? Abstract The author of the research used the abstract to determine the aim of the study, and to briefly justify the need for such research. The author also suggested the need to perform further sophisticated analysis of Websites and communication challenges they face. Introduction The particularity of the discussed research is in the fact that it has appeared too personalised from the very beginning: The author initially turned it into a form of narration, which could be understandable even to a non-professional reader. Literature review The author did not perform any literature review; consequentially, the research findings could hardly be tied to any theoretical perspectives. Research question The author has expressed the research purpose in the form of a question: â€Å"how are websites currently being described and analysed, particularly by researchers? † The author has clearly underlined the criteria for choosing the research information, which ultimately served the research sample. That search was limited to formal business and general websites (Durham, 2000). Methodology The article did not have any separate section devoted to the discussion of the research methodology. As a result, the reader (either professional or non-professional) could not clearly understand how the research was conducted. It is implied that the author of the article used qualitative analysis. However, as the exact methodology of the research was not explained, it was impossible to draw any conclusions as for the validity and reliability of the research findings. Findings The research findings lacked relevant theoretical basis and could hardly be systematised. Later in the article, the author recognised the lack of theoretical frameworks, but the research could significantly benefit of a separate section devoted to literature review. References The author has included the long list of literary sources, used in the research. The author utilised both primary and secondary sources of scientific information related to the research topic. Summary The research conclusion was brief, and was also written in the simple (and rather vague) form, which is not characteristic of the majority of scientific works in the area of communication strategies. â€Å"The overview of current work suggests rich areas for future research: site macrostructure, navigation and issues of intertextuality via the linkages made, etc† – the list of those suggestions was useful for the future studies. Due to the evident lack of theoretical basis, the discussed research looked as a system of practical suggestions, which might become the starting point in the creation of the valid theoretical structure in the area of communicational strategies. References Akkirman, AD Harris, DL 2005, Organisational communication satisfaction in the virtual workplace, Journal of Management Development, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 397-409. Durham, M 2000, Organisational websites. How and how well do they communicate? Australian Journal of Communication, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 1-14. Frey, LR, Bolan, Carl H, Fredman, PG Krep, GL 1992, Interpreting communication research: a case study approach, Prentice Hall, pp. 15-19. Goby, VP 2000, Social interaction and the Internet in Asia, A study of young Singaporeans, Australian Journal of Communication, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 79-90. Saunders, S Saee, J 2000, Intercultural communication competence and managerial functions within the Australian hospitality industry, Australian Journal of Communication, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 111-128. Yell, S 2003, New for old? Converging media and e-mail practices in the workplace, Australian Journal of Communication, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 93-107.

Characteristics and Gambling Habits of Bingo Players

Characteristics and Gambling Habits of Bingo Players An Investigation into the Characteristics and Gambling Habits of Bingo Players in the UK Introduction Bingo is a popular pastime in the UK, and has grown as an industry over recent years, moving away from local community centres to dedicated bingo halls and numerous online sites. As with all industries, to ensure that there is a continual renewal of customers, those in the bingo industry must be able to target their marketing strategies effectively. This means that they need to be able to identify who their target audience is for them to be able to deliver an effective marketing campaign which is aimed predominantly at those people (Aaker et al., 2000). Studies in the past have suggested that bingo is considered to be a rather low-level leisure activity. As a result, it has also been previously associated heavily with being a pastime of predominantly working class women (Dixey, 1987). In addition, it is generally associated with pensioners, largely due to the sedentary but social nature of the game (Cousins Witcher, 2007). Although this may have been the case a number of years ago, there is little recent empirical evidence to determine whether this is still the main market for bingo. Given the changing nature of the game and its delivery, it is plausible that changes in the main demographic of players may also be in a process of change. This study therefore uses pre-collected data to evaluate whether this may be the case. Rationale of Study Gathering information on the demographics of people who play bingo, or are interested in playing bingo, is likely to be useful to bingo halls for targeting their marketing campaigns. In addition, with the advent of online gambling, understanding whether current online gamblers would be likely to participate in bingo games if they were available may be important in design of online gaming sites. Marketing opportunities online may also be improved if evidence is available of the demographics of the target audience. Consideration will also be given to the expenditure of different demographic groups on bingo, as this information may be useful in the industry for determining customer value. Study Hypothesis Based on the previous literature, it is hypothesised that the main demographic of bingo players will be predominantly women, but that there will be a substantial number of younger players. It is also expected that there will be an association between those gaming online and those playing bingo. Finally, it is expected that there will be no difference in the expenditure on bingo between age groups. Methodology Origins of the Data The data which is used in this study was taken from the British Gambling Prevalence Study 2007, which was the largest study of its kind to be conducted in the UK to the present date. The study was commissioned by the National Centre for Social Research and aimed to collect information on gambling habits and demographics in order to assess the prevalence of problem gambling within the UK. Study Population The study was designed to be representative of all adults in the UK aged 16 years and older who were living within private households. Study Sample All residences in the UK were separated into Primary Sampling Units (PSUs) and 317 of these were randomly selected for the study. The probability of selecting each was apportioned according to the number of addresses within them, but no other demographics were taken into account. For each PSU which was selected, 32 addresses were selected randomly, and this gave a total of 10,144 addresses. After non-completion, the total sample available in the data-set was 9003. Study Instrument The study was conducted using a multiple-choice questionnaire. This clearly explained at the beginning the goal of the study, and explained clearly how the survey form should be completed. A coding document was then compiled to code the answers into statistical software packages, and this was included alongside the data-set. A copy of the questionnaire which was used is available from http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/findingData/snDescription.asp?sn=5836. The data which was included in the data-set was already weighted to account for non-response and bias, and this was completed by the researchers who completed the data collection and original analysis. Results Proportion of Bingo Players in the Sample The results of the analysis indicate that only a small minority of the population sampled had played bingo in the last twelve months, with a total of 7.5% of the sample. This is shown graphically in Figure 1. Table 2 then details the frequency with which that small group had played bingo. It may be seen that 45% of those who had played bingo in the last twelve months had done so less than once a month. A total of 36.4% of those who played bingo in the last twelve months had done so once a week or more, and a further 15.6% reported playing at least once a month. This information is then presented graphically in Figure 2. Table 1. The frequency with which respondents reported playing bingo in the last twelve months. For those who had played bingo in the last twelve months, the mean age was 47.78 with a standard deviation of 18.08, while it was 47.75 for those who had not played bingo in the last twelve months, with a standard deviation of 18.33. Performing an independent two-sample t-test on the data produced a p-value of 0.963, which indicates that the null hypothesis may not be rejected. This means that there is no significant difference between the mean age of the two groups at the 95% confidence level. Age of Bingo Players Table 2 displays the mean age of each group when those playing bingo within the last twelve months were grouped according to frequency of playing. Alongside the mean, the standard deviation is also given. This information is presented in the box-plot in Figure 3. This shows that the mean age of the players appears to increase as the frequency of playing increases. In addition, it would also appear that the variation in age is smallest in the group who play at least twice a week. Performing a one-way ANOVA analysis indicates that there is an association between age and the frequency of playing bingo and that the null hypothesis of no association may be rejected at the 5% level (p Table 2. Mean and standard deviation of the age of players grouped according to the frequency with which they play bingo. Gender of Bingo Players Of those who had played bingo in the last twelve months, 71.4% were female, and this percentage is show graphically in Figure 4. A chi-squared analysis indicates that there is evidence that the null hypothesis may be rejected at the 5% level (p Player Expenditure on Bingo Expenditure and Gender Analysis of the data shows that females who had played bingo in the last twelve months lost a mean of  £319 over the previous 7 days, with standard deviation 506. In contrast, males lost a mean of  £60.50 over the 7 days, with a standard deviation of 4.95. An independent samples t-test revealed that there is evidence at the 0.95 significance level against the null hypothesis of no association. This therefore indicates that there is a significant difference between the amount lost by males and females (p = 0.045). Expenditure and Age Figure 5 shows a scatter-plot of the total amount which each respondent reported losing at bingo in the last seven days plotted against their age. The black dots represent female participants while red dots represent males. It would appear from this plot that there is no association between the amount of money lost at bingo and the age of the player, for either males or females. A bivariate regression analysis of this data confirms this. It indicated that there was no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association, and so age was not found to be a significant predictor of the amount lost at bingo over the seven day period (p = .489). Figure 6 presents a scatter-plot of age against expenditure on bingo over the previous seven days when winnings are also taken into account in addition to losses. There was far more data available for this analysis, but it would still appear that there is no particular association between age and expenditure on bingo, for either males or females. This was confirmed by regression analysis, which indicated there was no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p = .187). Therefore it was concluded that there was no association between age and overall expenditure on bingo over the previous week. Expenditure and Frequency of Playing Bingo Figure 7 presents a box-plot of the amounts lost at bingo according to the frequency of playing bingo in the last twelve months. It would appear from this graph that those playing twice a week lost less than those who played less often, as the mean is lower and the variation is less. An ANOVA analysis however indicated that there was no evidence against the null hypothesis of association. This indicates that there is therefore no association between the frequency of playing bingo over the last twelve months and the amount lost at bingo (p = .925). Figure 8 presents a similar box-plot analysis which takes account of the winnings of players in addition to losses. When comparing the different frequency of playing groups it would appear that overall expenditure appears to be relatively consistent. The variation in expenditure does however appear to be somewhat larger in the group which play two times or more a week. One-way ANOVA analysis of this data confirms that there is no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p = .731). Therefore it may be concluded that frequency of playing bingo over the last twelve months did not impact on the overall expenditure of the player on bingo over the last week. Online Gamblers and Bingo Table 3 presents a cross-tabulation of the number of participants who reported having played bingo over the previous twelve months and those who reported having gambled online over the previous twelve months. This shows that of those who had reported playing bingo in the last twelve months, only 8% reported gambling online during that time (Figure 9). In contrast, 26.3% of those who had gambled online over the last twelve months reported that they had also played bingo during that period (Figure 10). A chi-squared analysis of this data indicates that there is strong evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p Table 3. The number of respondents who had gambled online over the previous twelve months and the number who had played bingo over the previous twelve months. Figure 11 presents a scatter-plot of the net expenditure on bingo in comparison to the net expenditure on online gambling, both over the previous seven day period. From this chart it would appear that there is no association between the two. A regression analysis confirms that there is no evidence against the null hypothesis of no association (p = .882). Therefore it must be concluded that there is no significant association between the total expenditure of the respondents on online gambling and their total expenditure on bingo over the same time period. Discussion From this study it may be seen that there are certain demographic characteristics which are associated with playing bingo. It would appear from the results that bingo players are in the minority, with only 7.5% of the population estimated to have played in 2007, and only 2.7% of the population playing once a week or more. As hypothesised at the beginning, there was no particular age group which was associated with playing bingo. There is however evidence that it is an older age group which is associated with playing bingo regularly, with the mean age being in the mid- to late-fifties for those playing once a week or more. Despite this, there was no association between age and the amount spent on bingo in a week. This indicates that older people are still the main demographic for the industry but that they are not particularly more valuable than younger people. They may however be more valuable if their spend is consistent week after week, when compared to younger players who may play only once a month or less. There was also no association between frequency of playing and expenditure within the week. This is an important implication as it suggests that customers who can be attracted to regularly play bingo will be consistent with their spending, and not reduce spending as they play more over the year. Almost three quarters of players were female, and it was also females who were associated with much larger expenditure on bingo. This finding is however somewhat limited, as only information on the expenditure of two males was available for analysis. Therefore this finding may not have a high statistical power. Finally, there is evidence that there is an association between bingo players and those gambling online. This is important as it suggests that there is potential in both advertising for bingo online and also in online bingo rooms. The extent to which an individual gambles online does not however appear to be associated with how much they spend on bingo. Therefore online players may not be more valuable than those attracted through offline methods. Although this study has provided some useful insights for those interested in the demographics of bingo players, there are some limitations. One of the main limitations is that there was little social information available in the study which related to income and social status of the respondents. It is possible that this may impact on gambling habits, including playing bingo (Barry et al., 2007). This may be important in areas where there are either large levels of population in higher or lower social classes. Therefore further market research in particular areas may be useful in determining the potential for marketing in that particular area. References Aaker, J.L., Brumbaugh, A.M. Grier, S.A. (2000) Nontarget markets and viewer distinctiveness: The impact of target marketing on advertising. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(3), 127-140. Barry, D.T., Maciejewski, P.K., Desai, R.A. Potenza, M.N. (2007) Income differences and recreational gambling. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 1(3), 145-153. Cousins, S.O. Witcher, C.S.G. (2007) Who plays bingo in later life? The sedentary lifestyles of ‘little old ladies’. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23(1), 95-112. Dixey, R. (1987) It’s a great feeling when you win: Women and bingo. Leisure Studies, 6(2), 199-214. National Centre for Social Research (2007) British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2007. Available [online] from: http://www.data-archive.ac.uk/findingData/snDescription.asp?sn=5836 [Accessed 12/12/2008].

Virtual Reality - What It Is And How It Works :: essays research papers

Virtual Reality - What it is and How it Works Imagine being able to point into the sky and fly. Or perhaps walk through space and connect molecules together. These are some of the dreams that have come with the invention of virtual reality. With the introduction of computers, numerous applications have been enhanced or created. The newest technology that is being tapped is that of artificial reality, or "virtual reality" (VR). When Morton Heilig first got a patent for his "Sensorama Simulator" in 1962, he had no idea that 30 years later people would still be trying to simulate reality and that they would be doing it so effectively. Jaron Lanier first coined the phrase "virtual reality" around 1989, and it has stuck ever since. Unfortunately, this catchy name has caused people to dream up incredible uses for this technology including using it as a sort of drug. This became evident when, among other people, Timothy Leary became interested in VR. This has also worried some of the researchers who are trying to create very real applications for medical, space, physical, chemical, and entertainment uses among other things. In order to create this alternate reality, however, you need to find ways to create the illusion of reality with a piece of machinery known as the computer. This is done with several computer-user interfaces used to simulate the senses. Among these, are stereoscopic glasses to make the simulated world look real, a 3D auditory display to give depth to sound, sensor lined gloves to simulate tactile feedback, and head-trackers to follow the orientation of the head. Since the technology is fairly young, these interfaces have not been perfected, making for a somewhat cartoonish simulated reality. Stereoscopic vision is probably the most important feature of VR because in real life, people rely mainly on vision to get places and do things. The eyes are approximately 6.5 centimeters apart, and allow you to have a full-colour, three-dimensional view of the world. Stereoscopy, in itself, is not a very new idea, but the new twist is trying to generate completely new images in real- time. In 1933, Sir Charles Wheatstone invented the first stereoscope with the same basic principle being used in today's head-mounted displays. Presenting different views to each eye gives the illusion of three dimensions. The glasses that are used today work by using what is called an "electronic shutter". The lenses of the glasses interleave inflating air bladders in a glove, arrays of tiny pins moved by shape memory wires, and even fingertip piezoelectric vibrotactile actuators. The latter method uses tiny crystals that vibrate when

Essay on The Glass Menagerie and the Life of Tennessee Williams

The Glass Menagerie and the Life of Tennessee Williams The Glass Menagerie closely parallels the life of the author. From the very job Tennessee held early in his life to the apartment he and his family lived in. Each of the characters presented, their actions taken and even the setting have been based on the past of Thomas Lanier Williams, better known as Tennessee Williams. Donald Spoto described the new apartment building that Williams and his family relocated to in St. Louis, Missouri as having only two small windows, one window in the front of the apartment and another in the rear.   A fire escape blocked the smoky light that might have come in from the window facing the back alley (16).  Ã‚   In The Glass Menagerie, the apartment was described as facing an alley. Meyer brought to my attention that the entrance to the apartment was actually a fire escape. There was no front door in the apartment of The Glass Menagerie, only a fire escape to enter and exit through (1865).  Ã‚   This omission of a front door represents the feeling that Tennessee Williams had that he could not leave his family and strike out on his own in a normal fashion as most children do. Tennessee Williams felt that he had to literally escape in order to follow his own dream of writing as Tom too felt in the play. John Fritscher points out in his dissertation that Tennessee a nd Tom both were torn between their mother's interpretation of responsibility and their own instinct (5). Tom Wingfield, the narrator of the play, is representative of Tennessee Williams himself, down to them sharing the same first name. Tennessee Williams did not earn his nickname until his college days at the University of Missouri (Meyer 1864).  Ã‚   Both Tom and Tennessee William... ...ed his world and his experiences of it in whatever form seemed suitable to the material. (Kahn)    Works Cited: Cook, Sharon. "Permission to Quote Me." E-mail to author. 2 Apr. 1999 Fritscher Ph.D., John J. Love And Death In Tennessee Williams Diss.1967: Loyola University Library. Internet 1999. Available: jackfritscher.com/tennessee Kahn, Sy. Modern American Drama: Essays in Criticism. Edited by Willima E. Taylor. Deland, Florida. Everette/Edwards Inc., 1968. 71-88 Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of Tennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.,1985 Tischler, Nancy M. Tennessee Williams: Rebellious Puritan. New York: The Citadel Press, 1965. Williams, Tennessee. The Glass Menagerie. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Writing, Thinking. 5th ed. Ed. Michael Meyer. Boston: Bedford, 1999. 1865-190

The Ages Of Poetry Essay -- essays research papers

The English Romantic poets of the 19th Century had a conception about nature that, over a century later, appears in the poetry of today. These poets have had a significant influence on the attitude and vocabulary a contemporary poet uses. Among the contemporary poets, Dana Gioia, in his two poems, "Becoming a Redwood," and "Rough Country," has drawn on the idea of the innocence and untainted part of nature that parallels the Romantic poetry of William Wordsworth and William Blake in their poems "Nutting," and "The Tyger." Also, Gioia has captured the wild-like and untamable demeanor of nature that many English Romantics have similarly captured. Finally, Gioia uses the concept of the sublime in his poetry to the extent that nature becomes dangerous to humans. Many English Romantic poets have written about the innocent and purity that can be found in nature. In Wordsworth's "Nutting," he comments on the beauty of the innocence of an "unvisited" nook his character discovers. Wordsworth writes, "Unvisited, where not a broken bough / Drooped with its withered leaves, ungracious sign / Of devastation; but the hazels rose / tall and erect, with tempting clusters hung, / A virgin scene!" (Ln17-31) Wordsworth is commenting on the innocence and beauty of nature without human intrusion. This Romantic conception of innocence parallels Gioia in his poem "Rough Country." He writes, " a spot so hard to reach that no one comes-- / a hiding place, a shrine for dragonflies / and nesting jays, a sign that there is still / one piece of property that won't be owned." (17-20) This last line implies that this part of nature will remain untouched, this part of nature will remain pure and innocent, and a Rom antic conception of nature that even Gioia has adopted in his poetry. Another conception that the English Romantics held about nature was that nature is wild and untamable. This wild-like aspect of nature is described in William Blake's "The Tyger." Blake writes, "Tyger, Tyger / Burning bright / In the forests of the night / What immortal hand or eye / Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?" (1-4) Blake creates this image of the Tyger as a wild beast, an untamable creature of the for... ... no silence but when danger comes." (25-27) This English Romantic concept of sublime that Gioia uses, makes humans to not only fear nature such as the Tyger or the mountains, but also to hold high respect for its beauty and magnificence. It is interesting to see how much of our history actually does repeat itself. It is amazing that even today, we are asking the same questions about nature and coming to similar conclusions as people did in the 19th century. Its not that nature hasn't changed, but the attitudes toward nature still build on many general English Romantic ideas. Dana Gioia, in particular, has taken some of the same attitudes toward nature as the Romantics have; he has developed the untamable and wildness of nature, the innocent and virgin, as well as the sublime in his two poems, "Becoming a Redwood," and "Rough Country." English Romantic poets such as William Wordsworth and William Blake influence each of his poems. Because of their strong influence on contemporary poets today, it would not be surprising to see their influence carry on in yet another century, and have the influence on poets for years to come.

American Education

American Education is provided mainly by the government, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. At the primary and secondary school levels, curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts. School districts can be (but are not always) coextensive with counties or municipalities. Educational standards and standardized testing decisions are usually made by the states through acts of the state legislature and governor, and decisions of the state departments of education.Education of the learning disabled, blind, deaf, and emotionally disturbed is structured to adhere as closely as possible to the same experience received by normal students. Blind and deaf students usually have separate classes in which they spend most of their day, but may sit in on normal classes with guides or interpreters. The learning disabled often attend for the same amount of time as other students; however, they also usually spend most of their day in separate classrooms, commonly known as special education or special ed; here they often receive extra instruction or perform easier work.The goal of these programs, however, is to try and bring everyone up to the same standard and provide equal opportunity to those students who are challenged. Some students are identified early on as having dyslexia or being significantly slower learners than other students. The federal government supports the standards developed in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004. The law mandates that schools must accommodate students with disabilities as defined by the act, and specifies methods for funding the sometimes large costs of providing them with the necessary facilities.Larger districts are often able to provide more adequate and quality care for those with special needs. It was noted that the country has a low literacy rate as compared with other develop ed countries, with a reading literacy rate at 86-98% of the population over age 15, while ranking below average in science and mathematics understanding. The poor performance has pushed public and private efforts such as the No Child Left Behind Act.In addition, the ratio of college-educated adults entering the workforce to general population (33%) is slightly below the mean of other developed countries (35%) and rate of participation of the labor force in continuing education is high. Under the No Child Left Behind Act, all American states must test students in public schools statewide to ensure that they are achieving the desired level of minimum education, such as on the Regents Examinations in New York or the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment (PSSA); students being educated at home or in private schools are not included.The Act also requires that students and schools show â€Å"adequate yearly progress. † This means they must show some improvement each year. Althou gh these tests may have revealed the results of student learning, they may have little value to help strengthen the students' academic weakness. For example, in most states, the results of the testing would not be known until six months later. At that time, the students have been promoted to the next grade or entering a new school.The students are not given a chance to review the questions and their own answers but their percentile of the test results as compare to their own peers. There are several undesirable phenomena seen in the administration of the testing. In Illinois, for example, the state government delegates the printing and distribution of the test questions and booklets to private companies . There are questions about the security of the tests through this management.In 2006, some school districts did not receive the test questions until after other school districts had finished the tests weeks later. During high school, students, usually in their junior (That is, third ) year (11th grade), may take one or more standardized tests depending on their postsecondary education preferences and their local graduation requirements. In theory, these tests evaluate the overall level of knowledge and learning aptitude of the students. The SAT and ACT are the most common standardized tests that students take when applying to college.A student may take the SAT, ACT, or both depending upon the college the student plans to apply to for admission. Most competitive schools also require two or three SAT Subject Tests, (formerly known as SAT IIs), which are shorter exams that focus strictly on a particular subject matter. However, all these tests serve little to no purpose for students who do not move on to postsecondary education, so they can usually be skipped without affecting one's ability to graduateHowever, many conservatives believe that American public education is in poor shape today because of cultural and social trends, most beginning in the 1960s, which d estroyed classroom discipline, the moral basis for education, and a national consensus on what students should learn. There is some truth in this proposition, but ultimately it fails to explain why American students do not possess the communication and computational skills they need today to succeed in college or in the working world. By any standard, California students are observed to be not performing up to their full abilities.While some within the public school system claim that poor performance is due to inadequate government spending on education, more in-depth research demonstrates that such is not the case. The Pacific Research Institute’s California Index of Leading Education Indicators compiles data on the performance of students in California’s public education system. The findings in the Index reveal that poor student performance is the result not of too few taxpayer dollars, but of poor policy decisions by government education officials.Reform blockers of the American political system advantages those who prefer the status quo, which is why so little has changed in American education Twenty years ago â€Å"A Nation at Risk† set off alarms about the quality of America's schools, and ever since our country has been caught up in a frenzy of education reform. But the frenzy hasn't produced much, After untold billions of dollars and lofty reform packages too numerous to list, very little has been accomplished. Why such disappointing results?Many factors are no doubt responsible, but much of the answer rests with the politics of education. The problem is that, with rare exceptions, reforms that make it through the political process tend to be those that are acceptable to establish. Terry M. Moe , Mar 22, 2003 Further more he stated that â€Å"the teachers unions have more influence over the public schools than any other group in American society. They influence schools from the bottom up, through collective bargaining activities t hat shape virtually every aspect of school organization.And they influence schools from the top down, through political activities that shape government policy. They are the 800-pound gorillas of public education. Yet the American public is largely unaware of how influential they are–and how much they impede efforts to improve public schools. The problem is not that the unions are somehow bad or ill-intentioned. They aren't. The problem is that when they simply do what all organizations do–pursue their own interests–they are inevitably led to do things that are not in the best interests of children.To appreciate why this is so, consider the parallel to business firms. No one claims that these organizations are in business to promote the public interest. They are in business to make money, and this is the fundamental interest that drives their behavior†. Terry M. Moe | Jan 22, 2005. The Wall Street Journal, Jan. 13 On the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) math test (last administered in 1996), 54 percent of California fourth graders scored below a basic ability level.The average test score of those taking the fourth-grade math surpassed only the average scores of students in Louisiana and Mississippi. While the 1994 NAEP reading test, the average test score of California fourth graders ranked at the very bottom of all states, tied for last with Louisiana. Not only did 59 percent of all California fourth graders score â€Å"below basic,† an even more appalling 71 percent of African American fourth graders and 81 percent of Hispanic fourth graders scored below basic.Interesting performance indicator is the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) scores of public versus private high school students. From 1987 to 1995, the average verbal score of public high school SAT takers in California dropped from 421 to 412 (with a low of 408) in 1994, while public school SAT math scores stayed constant at 485. Over that same time p eriod, however, the average verbal score of parochial high school SAT takers increased from 432 to 442, while parochial school math scores increased from 464 to 484.Similarly, both the average verbal and math scores of independent private school SAT takers increased during that period. (See Figure 1. ) The public and private school systems seem to be headed in opposite directions, which is why school vouchers are becoming a more attractive option. The rhetoric of school reform often ignores the crucial role of individual decisions (by students, by parents, by business owners, by educators) in determining educational outcomes. You can lead a horse to water, the old adage goes, but you can't make him drink.It's a folksy way of imparting an important individualist truth. Providing students opportunities at school does not guarantee success if students watch television rather than do their homework – and parents let them. By assuming that any set of reform ideas can magically cre ate a well-educated citizenry, we oversell the role of policy-making. Education requires initiative, a trait notoriously difficult to create or impose. American business leaders began to see a decentralized, â€Å"patchwork† education system as a liability in international competition. U. S.manufacturers, especially, saw the rise of Germany as a significant economic threat and sought to imitate that country's new system of state-run trade schools. In 1905, the National Association of Manufacturers editorialized that â€Å"the nation that wins success in competition with other nations must train its youths in the arts of production and distribution. † German education, it concluded, was â€Å"at once the admiration and fear of all countries. † American business, together with the growing labor movement, pressed Congress to dramatically expand federal spending on education, especially for vocational instruction.Also, business and education leaders began to apply n ew principles of industrial organization to education, such as top-down organization and a â€Å"factory-floor† model in which administrators, teachers, and students all had a place in producing a standardized â€Å"final product. † These leaders created professional bureaucracies to devise and implement policy. Perhaps the most important boosters of America's new public education system were what we might today call â€Å"cultural conservatives. † The turn of the century, after all, was a time of tremendous immigration.As more and more immigrants arrived in America, bringing with them a plethora of languages, cultural traditions, and religious beliefs, American political leaders foresaw the potential dangers of Balkanization. The public education system, once designed primarily to impart skills and knowledge, took on a far more political and social role. It was to provide a common culture and a means of inculcating new Americans with democratic values. Public s chools, in other words, were to be a high-pressure â€Å"melting pot† to help America avoid the dismal fate of other multi-national polities.American political leaders were all too familiar with the Balkan Wars of the early 1900s, and were intent on avoiding a similar fate. Educators today lack the tools for dealing with unruly children thanks to two supreme court decisions of the late 1960's and 1970's. The bureaucratic lament that curriculums need to be revised, salaries should be raised, money should be poured into the system, teachers are not qualified, teachers salaries should be tied to students' performances, are not the reasons for students not learning. Rather it is a lack of discipline in the classroom.One decision declared that schools do not have ‘absolute authority' over their students and the other that a school had violated students' ‘free speech' by suspending them for not adhering to the school's dress code. To compound the situation students have learned quickly that if a school official does something they do not like they can sue or just threaten to sue with sometimes very telling results. More importantly, the ever-present threat of lawsuits transforms a teacher from an active, authority figure into a fearful, hapless, down-trodden passive public servant.Discipline is key to learning and acquiring skills to be prepared for the rigorous task of facing the world. It certainly was in place and largely effective before the tumultuous '60's came along and â€Å"discipline† became sinister in connotation. Today classroom disruption is no longer of the mundane sort – feet on the desk, loud talking, noise-making and fighting. Schools are now dealing with sex offenders, pistol packing students, cursing, students and/or parents fighting with teachers and litigation, all of which undermine the teaching profession.When discipline goes out of the window, the pillars of civility get pushed aside. The universal moral valu es of self-control, self- respect, and respect for others and for property cease to exist. The door is flung wide open for all types of self-serving stress. Counselors, psychologists, psychoanalysts, television commentators, lawyers and many charlatans too, first on the scene of every school tragedy, screaming the blindingly obvious, blaming one parent, two parents, dysfunctional and functional, poor and not so poor families for the troubles of society's young, and creating more chaos than calm in the lives of the young.The Solution There was a time when schools were counted always for stability, discipline, knowledge, caring and shaping the minds of young people. In addition, schools forged cohesive societies with very clear-shared values that conferred a sense of worth on all. That sense of worth could be revisited by a restoration of discipline; by teachers and parents working together, to make educating children their number one priority in life; by a system that instills charac ter and spirituality and equips each student with cultural skills.The quest for social improvement and for making societies better rests with the future generation and if students are to have a sense of social responsibility and desire to live up to social obligations, then they must be armed with a real education premised on discipline. The alternative is not to be savoured. References Judy Gelbrich, OSU . 1999 – School of Education. Section II – American Education Part 1. Colonial America Patricia Caton (562) Technical Contact: [email  protected] edu 951- 4807 Peter Sacks, Standardized Minds: The High Price of America's Testing Culture