Theories and Concepts in Leadership and Management Essay - 1

Theories and Concepts in Leadership and Management - Essay Example A leader nurse takes responsibility and guides the staff in accordance to the nurse ethics. A nurse leader identifies the strength of other staff members and utilizes to create an effective model (Kelly, 2012). Management on the other hand is an elective or appointed position. A manager works based on goals set by an entity, a successful manager is one who performs according to expectation (Kelly, 2012). Management in this case is authoritative. Consultations are done on a horizontal basis. A manager defers form a leader in the manner in which decisions is arrived at. A manager works with an aim of improving the quality and output while leader works on the negatives and work on them to ensure an appropriate working environment is created (Marquis & Huston, 2014). In some cases the two functions may overlap. In this case an authoritative manager may have the traits that qualify him as a leader. The manager works with the available staff while leaders work on their negative and motivate them towards better performance. He ensures the external and internal environments are functional and are effective to ensure quality performance (AANAC, 2013). In this case policy making and execution are enjoined as a single function. This would imply that the two functions overlap. An effective nurse should aim at ensuring the overlap created by these two functions is harmonized and effective system

Compare a shared theme between the book Don Quioxote and the movie Toy Essay

Compare a shared theme between the book Don Quioxote and the movie Toy Story - Essay Example The stories about the knights have sunken deeply into his mind that, somehow, it has misshapen his sanity. He grew up idolizing knights and their gallantry and even began to dress up like one and go out on adventures or quests of his own for reasons like "My armour is my only wear, My only rest the fray"2. He had his own damsel in the person of a peasant girl from Toboso named Aldonsa Lorenzo. Alonso Quijano was so much into his character that he also made up a name for himself and had others call him Don Quixote de La Mancha. Buzz Lightyear of Toy Story, on the other hand, is so caught up in his own reality as a high-tech, space ranger, and not simply a plaything. His belief in his reality is so profound that he even believed that he could fly - a feat he was able to prove to himself and to the other toys when he tried flying with his eyes closed. Falling with style as Woody puts it. Discussing the common theme between the story of Don Quixote and the film Toy Story, one can see how the characters lived in a world of their own made-up realities. Don Quixote fed on his imaginations of the gallant knights and was even caught saying this to himself: "Who knows but that in time to come, when the veracious history of my famous deeds is made known, the sage who writes it, when he has to set forth my first sally in the early morning, will do it after this fashion"3. The effect of the books on his thinking was as deep as his wanting to become a full-fledged knight. This is stated in the book as: "Day was dawning when Don Quixote quitted the inn, so happy, so gay, so exhilarated at finding himself now dubbed a knight, that his joy was like to burst his horse-girths."4 He also went to as far as dubbing, his so-called damsel, Aldonsa Lorenzo as Dulcinea del Toboso and swearing to offer his services to this "fair lady". Along with his absurd thinking are absurd behaviors such as talking to himself and saying verses like "O Princess Dulcinea, lady of this captive heart, a grievous wrong hast thou done me to drive me forth with scorn, and with inexorable obduracy banish me from the presence of thy beauty. O lady, deign to hold in remembrance this heart, thy vassal, that thus in anguish pines for love of thee5. He also named his donkey Rosinante to add more glamour to his stature as a knight. Adding to the extremity of his fondness for chivalry and knighthood, Don Quixote looked for a squire for himself to keep track of his adventures. He promised the laborer an island just to get that loyal travel companion. "Your worship will take care, Senor Knight-errant, not to forget about the island you have promised me, for be it ever so big I'll be equal to gov erning it."6 Those and Don Quixote's other bizarre actions were all caused by too much exposure to books on chivalry and knighthood. His actions were inevitable since these are based on a strong belief which he has stated as: Thou shalt never see it again as long as thou livest7. He was too engrossed on those legends that it was almost impossible to stop him from associating everything he sees with his adventure. One incident was when he fought against what he perceived to be as monsters: "Fortune is arranging matters for us better than we could have shaped our desires ourselves, for look there, friend Sancho Panza, where thirty or more monstrous giants present themselves"8. Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote and the movie Toy Story both

Project Development Approach And Justification

Project Development Approach And Justification To solve actual problems in an industry setting, software engineer or a team of engineers must incorporate a development strategy that encompasses the process, methods and tools layers and generic phases. This strategy is often referred to as process model or a software engineering paradigm or project development approach. A process model for software engineering is chosen based on the nature of the project and application, the methods and tools to be used, and the controls and deliverables that are required. Our software is based on Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model. This software development approach is as described as below. Rapid Application Development Model RAD model is an incremental software development process model that emphasizes an extremely short development cycle. If requirements are well understood and project scope is constrained, the RAD process enables a development team to create a fully functional system within short time periods (60-90 days). RAD approach encompasses the following phases: Business Modeling: The flow of information among business functions is modeled in such a way that answers following questions: What Information drives the business? What Information generated? Who generates it? Where does Information go? Who Process it? Data Modeling: The flow defined as part of business modeling phase is refined into a set of data object that are needed to support the business. Data Modeling answers a set of specific questions that are relevant to any data processing application. It enables software engineer to identify data objects and their relationship using a graphical notation. C:Documents and SettingshiralsMy DocumentsMy Picturesuntitled.bmp Figure 2. RAD Model (Rapid Application Development Model) Process Modeling: The data objects defined in the data modeling phase are transformed to achieve the information flow necessary to implement a business function processing description s are created for adding, modifying, deleting or retrieving a data object. Application generation: RAD process works to reuse existing program components or create reusable components. Testing and turnover: The RAD process emphasizes reuse; many of the program components have already been tested. This reduces overall testing time. However, new components must be tested and all interfaces must be fully exercised. Advantages of RAD Model: Emphasizes an extremely short development cycle Fully functional system within very short time periods Drawbacks of RAD Model: Like all process models RAD approach has drawbacks: For large but scalable projects, RAD requires human resources to create the right number of RAD teams. RAD requires developers and customers who are committed to the rapid-fire activities necessary to get a system complete in a much-abbreviated time frame. If commitment is lacking from either constituency, RAD projects will fail. Not all type of applications are appropriate for RAD. If system cannot be properly modularized, building the components necessary for RAD will be problematic. RAD is not appropriate when technical risks are high. Weeks Months Week l Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 1st Month 1)Orientation program 2)Introduction session 3)Overview of training training Program 4)Introduction to system setup 5)ISO introduction 6)Study of ACTL intranet sites 1) Seminar on ACTL coding standards 2) Database standards and practices. 3) Implementation of demo project named Inventory Management System 1) Testing of demo project named Inventory Management System 2) Lecture on quality assurance 3) Lecture on SDLC 4) Introduction to CRS 1) Study Project definition and requirement analysis of proposed system 2) Data flow analysis of proposed system 3) Decided the software process model for the proposed System. 4) Prepare required diagrams. 2nd Month 1)Learn how JQuery works 2)Study about CRS Restaurant modules 3)Database design 1) Study about amenities module 2) Implement amenities module 3)Testing of created module 1) Study about policy module 2) Implement policy module 3)Testing of created module 1) Study about promotion module 2) Implement promotion module 3)Testing of created module 3rd Month 1) Study about Servings module 2) Implement Servings module 3)Testing of created module 1) Study about Cuisine, Hall, Price List module 2) Implement module 3)Testing of created module 1) Study about booking , Cancelation , Stop Sales module 2) Implement of it 3)Testing of created module 1) Study of Event, Loyalty, User module 2) Implement Events, Loyalty module 3)Testing of created module 4rd Month 1) compliance, Roles , Themes module 2) Implement module 1)Testing created module Report Development 2)Integration of all modules 1) Integration testing 2) Add facility of multi lingual facility 1) Test system on different browsers. 2) Solve Issues. Figure 2.2 Project Planning Milestones: Every task or group of tasks should be associated with project milestone. A milestone is accomplished when one or more work products has been reviewed for quality and has been approved. Project Milestones include completion of some defines tasks in defined time limits. The milestones associated with this project are shown below: Study of ACTL Framework JQuery First milestone includes study of ACTL framework, SDLC, study of JQuery documents. JQuery documents includes JQGrid, JQuery Wizard, JQuery Validation, Menu, JQuery Date picker, etc., Database coding standards, query optimization, etc Project planning Scheduling Second milestone includes analysis of project and designing. Then we have started coding to develop first prototype which includes Servings Halls. Cuisine Items setup also includes setup of Items and based on selection of Cuisine, Finally all these modules are debugged and tested. Development of various modules Third milestone includes developing price list module, stop sell module, search booking module. Item Price List module includes setup of rates for different items hall wise. Booking search includes guest searching. Also these modules are debugged and tested. Development continued Fourth milestone includes developing reports module, business setup module, compliance module, etc. These all modules are again tested and reviewed. Testing and Documentation Fifth milestone includes the integration testing and documentation. Deliverables: Every task that is scheduled should have a defined outcome. For software projects, the outcome is normally a work product (e.g., the design of a module) or a part of a work product. Work products are often combined in deliverables. They are delivered at end of some major phase such as specification, design etc. Deliverables for this project are shown below: Project Specification It includes the requirement analysis and specification of each module to be developed. It includes description of each module containing what that module does, how it interacts with another module, what is input to that module and the outputs from that module. Project Design It includes structural design for each module. Design is used for better understanding of each modules functionality and interface. Designing consists of many diagrams which help us to view a system as a whole. Developed Product It is the working product or prototype delivered to customer. Documentation It includes some facilities to help the customer while using this project. Roles: After careful review of requirements, this project requires following different modes for interaction: programming mode, test mode, monitoring mode, and troubleshooting mode. Therefore, roles can be defined as programmer, tester, monitor, and troubleshooter. Here we are three peoples in our team. We all play these four roles as per requirements of project and as per our scheduling. Project Managers role is to review the project and suggest the improvements to be done. Responsibilities: Every task that is scheduled is assigned to a specific team member. Each members responsibility is to develop the assigned module, test it and troubleshooting for that module. Resources: The first step in building the project schedule is to identify the resources required to perform each of the tasks required to complete the project. A resource is any person, item, tool, or service that is needed by the project that is either scarce or has limited availability. The project could include computer resources (like shared computer room, mainframe, or server time), locations (training rooms, temporary office space), services (like time from contractors, trainers, or a support team), and special equipment that will be temporarily acquired for the project. One or more resources must be allocated to each task. To do this, the project manager must first assign the task to people who will perform it. For each task, the project manager must identify one or more people on the resource list capable of doing that task and assign it to them. Once a task is assigned, the team member who is performing it is not available for other tasks until the assigned task is completed. While some tasks can be assigned to any team member, most can be performed only by certain people. If those people are not available, the task must wait. In our team each and every member is assigned specific modules. Resources required by these modules are also allocated to him/her only. Dependencies: Once resources are allocated, the next step is to identify dependencies between tasks. A task has a dependency if it involves an activity, resource, or work product that is subsequently required by another task. Dependencies come in many forms: a test plan cant be executed until a build of the software is delivered; code might depend on classes or modules built in earlier stages; a user interface cant be built until the design is reviewed. It is the project managers responsibility to work with everyone on the engineering team to identify these dependencies. The project manager should start by taking the each module and adding dependency information to it: each task in the selected module is given a number, and the number of any task that it is dependent on should be listed next to it as a predecessor. Figure 2.3 shows the four ways in which one task can be dependent on another. Figure 2.3: Dependency among Modules We have also identified dependencies among the modules and sub modules in our project. Then we have divided our work as per dependencies. Schedule Representation Software project scheduling is an activity that distributes estimated efforts across the planned duration by allocating the effort to specific software engineering tasks. Time Line Chart (Weekly) 1st February To 29th February Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Work Task Introduction to CRS Study Project Definition Analysis Analysis of Amenities Module Analysis of Policy Module Milestone Implementation of Amenities Policy Module Figure 2.4: Project Schedule Representation Work Task Week 4 Week 3 Week 2 Week 11st March To 29th March Testing of developed modules Servings, Cuisine, Halls Implementation of price list, Bookings, stop sell, Testing of developed modules Loyalty, Events Analysis of multilingual Milestone Implementation of Search booking Stop sell Module Work Task Week 4 Week 3 Week 2 Week 11st April To 26th April Testing of developed modules Analysis of Compliance Module Implementation Testing of Compliance Module Integration Testing Solve Issues Creating Themes Multi lingual Milestone Implementation of CRS RISK MANAGEMENT It is the process of measuring or assessing risk and then developing strategies to manage the risk. In general, the strategies employed include transferring the risk to another party, avoiding the risk, reducing the negative effect of the risk, and accepting some or all of the consequences of a particular risk. Traditional risk management focuses on risks stemming from physical or legal causes (e.g. natural disasters or fires, accidents, death, and lawsuits). Financial risk management, on the other hand, focuses on risks that can be managed using traded financial instruments. Project Risks are risks, which affect the project schedule or resources. Product Risks are risks, which affect quality or performance of the software being developed. Business Risks are risks which affect the organization developing or procuring the software. In ideal risk management, a prioritization process is followed whereby the risks with the greatest loss and the greatest probability of occurring are handled first, and risks with lower probability of occurrence and lower loss are handled later. In practice this process can be very difficult, and balancing between risks with a high probability of occurrence but lower loss vs. a risk with high loss but lower probability of occurrence can often be mishandled. Risk Identification Risk identification is a systematic attempt to specify threats to the project plan (estimates, schedule, resource loading, etc.) By identifying known and predictable risks, the project manager takes a first step towards avoiding them when possible and controlling them when necessary. There are two distinct types of risks Generic risks and Product-specific risks. Generic risks are a potential threat to the project and Product-specific risks are those that can be identified by only those with clear understanding of the technology, the people and the environment that is specific to that project. Possible risks involved in developing Central Reservation System are technical risks and project risks. First risk Central Reservation System is totally dependent on ACTL Framework. Second risk is that our system needs to be integrated to booking engine via Dxchange middleware that uses XML format data as communication standard . Third risk is associated with authorization; if in the software the anonymous or wrong user is authorized or assign role by mistake then he may do changes that cause the system in dangerous mode. We are planning to give multilingual co-branding system. The risk is associated with time period, the degree of uncertainty that project schedule will be meet, maintained and that the product will be on time. Project Risk includes personnel (staffing and organization) risk and schedule risk. Currently our team size is 3. We can follow our schedule as per planning. If team size gets reduced then schedule and planning must be changed. Risk Analysis Risk analysis = Risk Assessment + Risk Management + Risk Communication. Risk Assessment:- It involves identifying sources of potential harm, assessing the likelihood that harm will occur and the consequences if harm does occur. Risk Management:- It evaluates which risks identified in the risk assessment process require management and selects and implements the plans or actions that are required to ensure that those risks are controlled. Risk Communication:- It involves an interactive dialogue between stakeholders and risk assessors and risk managers which actively informs the other processes. There are two points to keep in mind when analyzing risk: Where is the risk? How significant is the risk? By analyzing the identified risks we have the following conclusion. The probability that algorithm risk becomes reality is very high. We have to study and implement JQuery components. So there is possibility that some of the components cannot fit into current structure. Without these components our current system can run efficiently but either we have to change our desired component. Risk Planning Once risks have been identified and assessed, all techniques to manage the risk fall into one or more of these four major categories: Risk Avoidance It includes not performing an activity that could carry risk. An example would be not buying a property or business in order to not take on the liability that comes with it. Avoidance may seem the answer to all risks, but avoiding risks also means losing out on the potential gain that accepting the risk may have allowed. To avoid the risk also avoids the possibility of earning profits. Risk Reduction It involves methods that reduce the severity of the loss. Modern software development methodologies reduce risk by developing and delivering software incrementally. Early methodologies suffered from the fact that they only delivered software in the final phase of development; any problems encountered in earlier phases meant costly rework and often jeopardized the whole project. By developing in iterations, software projects can limit effort wasted to a single iteration. A current trend in software development, spearheaded by the Extreme Programming community, is to reduce the size of iterations to the smallest size possible, sometimes as little as one week is allocated to an iteration. Risk Retention It involves accepting the loss when it occurs. Risk retention is a viable strategy for small risks where the cost of insuring against the risk would be greater over time than the total losses sustained. All risks that are not avoided or transferred are retained by default. This includes risks that are so large or catastrophic that they either cannot be insured against or the premiums would be infeasible. This may also be acceptable if the chance of a very large loss is small or if the cost to insure for greater coverage amounts is so great it would hinder the goals of the organization too much. Risk transfer It means causing another party to accept the risk, typically by contract or by hedging. Insurance is one type of risk transfer that uses contracts. Other times it may involve contract language that transfers a risk to another party without the payment of an insurance premium. Liability among construction or other contractors is very often transferred this way. On the other hand, taking offsetting positions in derivatives is typically how firms use hedging to financially manage risk. Some ways of managing risk fall into multiple categories. Risk retention pools are technically retaining the risk for the group, but spreading it over the whole group involves transfer among individual members of the group. This is different from traditional insurance, in that no premium is exchanged between members of the group up front, but instead losses are assessed to all members of the group. The planning by which the identified risks for this project are handled is described as following: We have planned to build sample application in ACTL Framework so all team members can be familiar with framework. We planned to use OTA standard to communicate with booking engine. We have also planned to use compliance driven system so even if a user is assigned a role accidently then also users changes need to be approved by super administrator. ESTIMATION Effective software project estimation is one of the most challenging and important activities in software development. Estimation is one of the cornerstones of effective project planning: effective project planning and control is not possible without a sound and reliable estimate. Under-estimating a project leads to under-staffing it (which often results in staff burnout), under-scoping the quality assurance effort (running the risk of low quality deliverables), and setting too short a schedule (resulting in loss of credibility as deadlines are missed). This negatively impacts staff productivity, product quality, customer relationships and overall credibility. Conversely, overestimating a project can be just as detrimental. Since most projects expand to fit their estimated schedule, allocating appropriate resources to future projects can quickly become an issue, creating scheduling bottle necks and planning difficulties. Good software estimation and planning goes beyond tools, techniques and processes. Its also about the right attitude, understanding and mutual expectations not just from the software developers but also from senior management. When we understand together what can be done, what has been done, and what is being put before us, we can successfully plan projects to make them more predictable. A sound estimate starts with dividing project in some phases. Each phase is that, if completed, will produce the final product. There are many ways to decompose a project into tasks. The project can be broken down by feature, by project phase (requirements tasks, design tasks, programming tasks, etc.), or by some combination of the two. Now the team must create an estimate of the effort required to perform each task. The most accurate estimates are those that rely on prior experience. Team members should review previous project results and find how long similar tasks in previous projects took to complete. Sources of delays in the past should be taken into account when making current estimates. No estimate is guaranteed to be accurate. People get sick or leave the organization; teams run into unforeseen technical problems; the needs of the organization change. The unexpected will almost certainly happen. Therefore, the goal of estimation is not to predict the future. Instead, it is to gauge an honest, well-informed opinion of the effort required to do a task from those people in the organization who have the most applicable training and knowledge. Effort Estimation Software costs and effort estimation will never be an exact science. Too many variables human, technical, environmental, political can affect the ultimate cost of software and effort applied to develop it. However, software project estimation can be transformed from a black art to a series of systematic steps that provide estimates with acceptable risks. To achieve reliable cost and effort estimates, a number of options arise: Delay estimation until late in the project Base estimates on similar projects that have already been completed. Use relatively simple decomposition techniques to generate project cost and effort estimates. Use on or more empirical models for software cost and effort estimation. We are adapting following criteria to estimate the effort. Step 1: We are computing the count total which will be used to define the complexity of a project. You will do that by completing the Figure 2.5. Top of Form Measurement Parameter Count Simple Average Complex Total Number of user inputs X 3 4 6 = Number of user outputs X 4 5 7 = Number of user inquiries X 3 4 6 = Number of files X 7 10 15 = Number of external interfaces X 5 7 10 = Count Total Figure 2.5: Table to compute Count Total Step 2: We are finding the complexity adjustment values based on responses to the questions shown in Figure 2.6. Question 0 1 2 3 4 5 1. Does the system require reliable backup and recovery? 2. Are data communications required? 3. Are there distributed processing functions? 4. Is performance critical? 5. Will the system run in an existing, heavily utilized operational environment? 6. Does the system require on-line data entry? 7. Does the on-line data entry require the input transaction? 8. Are the master file updated on-line? 9. Are the inputs, outputs, files, or inquiries complex? 10. Is the internal processing complex? 11. In the code designed to be reusable? 12. Are conversion and installation included in the design? 13. Is the system designed for multiple installations in different organizations? 14. Is the application designed to facilitate change and ease of use by the user? Total fi Complexity Weighting Factors (0 = No influence, 1 = Incidental, 2 = Moderate, 3 = Average, 4 = Significant, 5 = Essential): Figure 2.6: Table to compute Complexity Adjustment Values The Function Points is: (FP=Count Total + {0.65+0.01*(Efi)}) Step 3: We are finding LOC (Lines of Code), and we do this by choosing a programming language that we will use when developing a project. Figure 2.7 shows LOC/FP for different programming languages. Programming Language LOC/FP (average) Select Assembly Language 320 C 128 COBOL 105 Fortran 105 Pascal 90 Ada 70 Object-Oriented Languages 30 Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs) 20 Code Generators 15 Spreadsheets 6 Graphical Languages (icons) 4 Figure 2.7: LOC/FP Values for Different Programming Languages So LOC/FP for our project is Step 4: Final Step is to select complexity of the software project. Figure 2.8 is used to calculate effort and duration of the project. Software Project ab bb cb db Select Organic 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38 Semi-detached 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35 Embedded 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32 Figure 2.8: Table to compute Effort and Duration From Figure 2.8 calculated effort and duration are: Effort (E) = ab(KLOC)bb = Duration (D) = cb(E)db = Cost Analysis: A cost-benefit analysis is necessary to determine economic feasibility. The primary objective of the cost-benefit analysis is to find out whether it is economically worthwhile to invest in the project. If the return on the investments is good, then the project is considered economically worthwhile. Cost-benefit analysis is performed by first listing all the costs associated with the project. Costs consist of direct costs and indirect costs. Benefits can be broadly classified as tangible benefit and intangible benefits. Tangible benefits are directly measurable and intangible are not. The sum of all costs is compared with the sum of all the savings (tangible and intangible). It is not always easy to assign money value to intangible benefits. It is arrived at by discussion amongst users of the system. Figure 2.9 shows general cost associated with project. Procurement Cost Installation cost for installing supporting software like Microsoft Office, Microsoft Visual Studio etc. The company already has the license for this software. Project Related Cost Cost of Data Collection for System Analysis. Cost of preparing Documentation. Cost of Development Management. Cost of Organization Resources. Ongoing Cost System Maintenance cost. Depreciation cost. Figure 2.9: Cost Representation Estimation of Cost is not provided to us as it is against the policy of Avani Cimcon Technologies Ltd. and due to some security reason.

Art :: essays research papers

Since the dawn of human existence and literally thousands of years before written languages developed, people have used their surroundings as a canvas for expression. Art has changed a great deal since it began many centuries ago. Centuries, however, are not necessary to notice the small changes that are evident even between cultures of similar times. Egyptians were the first people to make a large impact on the world of art. Egyptians needed art for their religious beliefs more than decoration or self-gratification. The most important aspect of Egyptian life is the ka, the part of the human spirit that lives on after death. The ka needed a physical place to occupy or it would disappear. Most of the important men of Egypt paid to have their body carved out of stone. That was were the spirit would live after the man dies. They used stone because it was the strongest material they could find. Longevity was very important. The bodies are always idealized and clothed. Figures are very rigid, close-fisted, and are built on a vertical axis to show that the person is grand or intimidating. Early Greek art was greatly influenced by the Egyptians. Geography permitted both cultures to exchange their talents. The beginning of Greek art is marked by the Geometric phase. The most common art during the Geometric phase was vase painting. After the vase was formed but before it was painted, the artist applied a slip (dark pigment) to outside. Then the vase was fired and the artist would incise his decorations into the hard shell. It was important to incise humans into the fired slip and not paint with slip. The people in the pictures needed light colored skin, which was the color beneath the slip, because Greeks wanted to make their art as realistic as possible. Much like Egyptian art, the Greeks idealized the bodies of the people in their works. As the Archaic Period evolved, Greek sculptures were almost identical to the Egyptians'. Unlike Egyptians, the Greeks refined their techniques. Greeks used marble to construct their sculptures. It was considered more valuable and beaut iful than any material available. Christian art was introduced during the middle of the second century. In many cases the only difference between Christian art and Hellenistic art is the religious subject matter. After a slow start the Christians introduced something new, the mosaic. Mosaics became a favorite medium for decorating churches.

Benefits of a C Corporation Essay

Firstly, a C Corporation can be defined as a legal unit of business that has its own separate identity from its owners or the persons that form it. To use the general legal term, it is a â€Å"body corporate†, a â€Å"legal entity†, which simply means a corporation can be treated just like an individual in law, it can sue and can be sued. This singular characteristic does not only make it quite unique but also gives it an edge over other business entities such as sole proprietor, partnership, limited liability Company to mention but few. However, the two major types of corporation, which are the C Corporation and S Corporation. The C Corporation has quite numerous benefits; the most technical of these is its ability to guard its owners’ personal assets from judgment against the business. Owners can also split profit and loss with the business for a lower overall tax rate. Yet another benefit is that it has no limits in number of shareholders and owner. Again, Owners do not need to be U. S. citizens or residents; both foreign and local are equally allowed to share in its ownership. A C corporation also has the flexibility of being owned by yet another business entity, rather than an individual or several individuals. Finally, the C Corporation has a package of much greater tax advantages over any other business entity, for it was primarily designated for tax purposes, while the â€Å"S† corporation passes it tax to the shareholders, the C Corporation on the other hand acts as it own tax entity. Reference Bakan J. , 2004, The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power. USA

New Religions Essay

Present essay studies how new religions are born in the context of social, cultural and intellectual relations between people. The analysis addresses the origins of three Abrahamic religions: Christianity, Judaism and Islam to trace their origins, historical and social needs that drove their development and intrinsic ties with their predecessors. The thesis is defended that the birth of religions should not be regarded as merely divine providence, intellectual development, but should be understood through the prism of socio-political developments in a given society. The origins of Christianity Christianity was not born as fully autonomous religion, but in contrast was under a great influence of Judaism (Brown, 963). This influence relates to the same canonical religious texts, including Old Testament, monotheism etc. Hence, Christianity was born simultaneously as a follower and opponent to Judaism. There is no denying the importance of the fact that social roots of Christianity should be traced in Jewish revolutionary movement against Judaist aristocracy, living in wealth and oppressing lower classes and Roman dominance, which was particularly aggressive. In its intellectual roots Early Christianity focused on critique of material goods, which is reflected in its celebration of soul, love and salvation. Such ideology was particularly successful amongst ordinary people, who saw Christianity as the source of their liberation (Bruce, 235). However, notwithstanding these social roots, Christian religion was for a long time persecuted in Judea and Roman empire in general. It did not function as state religion until AD 325 when the First Council of Nicaea took place and Constantine the Great made his historical decision. Until that time Christianity functioned within different sects, which focused on often contradictory interpretations of Bible, Greek philosophy, Gnosticism, Judaism etc (Grant, 45). Therefore, establishing Christianity as a full-fledged religion required its ascendance in the role of state religion and codification of its canonical legacy. The task was realized by St. Paul, who transformed the earlier premises of Christianity and made them affordable to interpretation by state power. Various Christian Councils later codified Christian texts and interpreted them to create unified traditions. Other interpretations of Christianity were persecuted by official Christianity, which marked the final stage in its transformation into full-fledged religion. Judaism The historical roots of Judaism should be traced back in the social need of Judea state to legitimize and develop its national autonomy in the ancient world (Shaye and Cohen, 36-39). The proof of the latter thought may be found in Tanakh (Old Testament), a canonical text of Judean tradition. Old Testament presents a Jewish nation (Childern of Israel) in their direct relationship with God, who proclaimed them the chosen nation. The latter shows that Judaism was central for Judea in positioning itself as the most progressive state in the Middle Eastern region. The historical origins of Judaism should also be traced in the need of regulating social relations in Judean society. This is the most evident in commandments or Law of Moses, which includes 613 laws, regulating various spheres of life in society. Hence, there is no denying the importance of the fact that Judaism was a very important ethical, legislative and moral tool in ancient Jewish society. Its main principles were later included in Talmud, which became the prototype of religious legislative system in general. Notwithstanding the fact that Judaism was the first monotheistic religion it was influenced by some ancient religions such as Zoroastrianism, from which Judaism borrowed certain cult practices, monotheistic ideas and philosophical mindset (Shaye and Cohen, 295). The ties of Judaism are also evident with Christianity and Islam, which form the group of common Abrahamic religions. Islam Islam has its historical roots both in Judaism and Christianity. As it is widely known, Islam uses Christian tradition of preaching Jesus; however, unlike Christianity in Muslim tradition, Jesus is regarded as a mortal person (Esposito, 23). Muhammad, the final prophet of God is regarded as a great reformer, who restored the original monotheistic tradition of Moses, Jesus and Abraham, which arguably was distorted in Christianity and Judaism. Therefore, it may be said that Islam is based on permanent reference to Judaism and Christianity, as the sources of its own development. The birth of Islam was also fostered by the ethical, intellectual and moral needs of Arab societies. Quran may be compared to Torah in this respect, because it served as the main tool for regulating social relations in Muslim societies. Its main commandments were included in Shariat law, which reflects Muslim tradition of correspondence between law and religious norms. Moreover, it should be noted that Islam was born and developed in the period of the rapid ascendance of Arab civilization as the center of power and development in Asia (Esposito, 68). Arab conquests and interrelations with the West were premised on the construction of the national and religious identity, which was found in Islam. Islam served as the tool for contrasting Muslim world with Western and allowed unifying various Muslim nations in the single task of promoting the cause of Mohammad. To sum it up, we have discussed major historical, social, cultural and ethical causes, which influenced the birth of three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The analysis shows that their birth and development should be understood as the complex process, affected not only by intellectual development, but deeper social and political processes, including revolutionary movement, the inception of new nationalist states, the relations between different civilizations etc. Bibliography Brown R. E. 1994. The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave. New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library. Bruce F. F. , 1988. The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. Esposito, John. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press Grant, M. 1977. Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels. New York: Scribner’s. Shaye, J. D. and Cohen. 1999. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Virtues essays

Virtues essays From a broad perspective an agreement between multiple parties can be compromised on the definition of virtue. However, when approached on the topic of virtue from a personal perspective, the definition can be altered to suit ones own life experiences. This can be exemplified through the perspectives of three ladies, Aprha Behn, Frances Burney, and Mary Shelley. In each of their works the topic of virtue is indirectly expressed through various situations and characters, all unique to each other. The boundaries for which virtue is illustrated through these texts is creatively shown in different spectrums. Behn depicts virtue as innocence, purity and having a charitable nature. In "The Unfortunate Happy Lady," Behn immediately begins setting her boundaries for virtue within the first two sentences. She reveals this through her introduction of Sir William Wilding, "I shall conceal the unhappy Gentlemans own under the borrowd Names of Sir William Wilding, who succeeded his Father Sir Edward, in an Estate of near 4000l. a Year, inheriting all that belongd to him, except his Virtues" (Behn.1). From this it is fair to conclude that Behn deems virtue as something that can not be bought nor inherited. Behns strongest portrayal of virtue is used through Sir Williams younger dear sister Philadelphia. The introduction of Philadelphia is again established with a basis of virtue, "...his Sister Philadelphia, a young Lady of excellent Beauty, Education, and virtue..."(Behn 1). Philadelphia would indeed seem just as virtuous during the time of the other two texts, Evelina written by Burney during the eighteenth century and Frankenstein by Shelley written during the Romantic era, as she is during Restoration. Her virtue is timeless, but never more respected and appreciated than that of her own time. The respect she receives through the other characters in the text reveals this fact. For instan...

Location and Function of the Pons in the Human Brain

Location and Function of the Pons in the Human Brain In Latin, the word pons literally means bridge. The pons is a portion of the hindbrain that connects the cerebral cortex with the medulla oblongata. It also serves as a communications and coordination center between the two hemispheres of the brain. As a part of the brainstem, the pons helps in the transferring of nervous system messages between various parts of the brain and the spinal cord. Function The pons is involved in several functions of the body including: ArousalAutonomic function: breathing regulationRelaying sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellumSleep Several cranial nerves originate in the pons. The largest cranial nerve, the trigeminal nerve aids in facial sensation and chewing. The abducens nerve assists in eye movement. The facial nerve enables facial movement and expressions. It also aids in our sense of taste and swallowing. The vestibulocochlear nerve aids in hearing and helps us maintain our equilibrium. The pons  helps to regulate the respiratory system by assisting the medulla oblongata in controlling breathing rate. The pons is also involved in the control of sleep cycles and the regulation of deep sleep. The pons activates inhibitory centers in the medulla in order to inhibit movement during sleep. Another primary function of the pons is to connect the forebrain with the hindbrain. It connects the cerebrum to the cerebellum through the cerebral peduncle. The cerebral peduncle is the anterior portion of the midbrain that consists of large nerve tracts. The pons relays sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellum. Functions under the control of the cerebellum include  fine motor coordination and control, balance, equilibrium, muscle tone, fine motor coordination, and a sense of body position. Location Directionally, the pons is superior to the medulla oblongata and inferior to the midbrain. Sagittally, it is anterior to the cerebellum and posterior to the pituitary gland. The fourth ventricle runs posteriorly to the pons and medulla in the brainstem. Pons Injury Damage to the pons can result in serious problems as this brain area is important for connecting areas of the brain that control autonomic functions and movement. Injury to the pons may result in sleep disturbances, sensory problems, arousal dysfunction and coma. Locked-in syndrome is a condition resulting from damage to nerve pathways in the pons that connect the cerebrum, spinal cord, and cerebellum. The damage disrupts voluntary muscle control leading to quadriplegia and the inability to speak. Individuals with locked-in syndrome are consciously aware of what is going on around them but are unable to move any parts of their bodies except for their eyes and eyelids. They communicate by blinking or moving their eyes. Locked-in syndrome is most commonly caused by decreased blood flow to the pons or bleeding in the pons. These symptoms are often the result of blood clot or stroke. Damage to the myelin sheath of nerve cells in the pons results in a condition called central pontine myelinolysis. The myelin sheath is an insulating layer of lipids and proteins that help neurons conduct nerve impulses more efficiently. Central pontine myelinolysis can result in difficulty swallowing and speaking, as well as paralysis. A blockage of the arteries that supply blood to the pons can cause a type of stroke known as lacunar stroke. This type of stroke occurs deep within the brain and typically only involves a small portion of the brain.  Individuals suffering from a lacunar stroke may experience numbness, paralysis, loss of memory,  difficulty in speaking or walking, coma, or death. Divisions of the Brain Forebrain: encompasses the cerebral cortex and brain lobes.Midbrain: connects the forebrain to the hindbrain.Hindbrain: regulates autonomic functions and coordinates movement.

How to Find a Good Job For Yourself When You Have Anxiety

How to Find a Good Job For Yourself When You Have Anxiety Finding the right career path for yourself is a daunting process under any circumstances. If you suffer from anxiety or similar challenges in your everyday life, career choices can seem downright overwhelming sometimes. Everyone faces situational anxiety occasionally, but clinical anxiety (disorders that include social anxiety, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and phobias) has the potential make professional life more difficult. The good news is that your career is something you can take control of, regardless of a diagnosis- and sometimes making the right decision comes down to being flexible, and honest about what works best for yourself.That means that not every career is created equal. If you’re prone to anxiety, you likely don’t want to add too many potential stress triggers. After all, if your job is making you miserable day in and day out, that’s not a healthy professional arc for anyone. The key to balancing you r career with your anxiety (whether it’s general or social) is finding that sweet spot of doing something that you’re good at doing, and that makes you feel comfortable.Some tips for juggling your anxiety and your professional life.Be realistic about your strengths and limitations. For example, if you have social anxiety, a job working with directly with the public could make you totally miserable for 40 hours a week. Knowing up front what triggers or aggravates your particular brand of anxiety can help you figure out potential danger zones at work, and make choices accordingly.Be flexible. Let’s say you always thought you wanted to be an astronaut, but when you get further along the path, you realize that the stresses and claustrophobia of being in a spacecraft are giving you panic attacks and making you dread whatever comes next. Just because you always thought you should be an astronaut, or you’ve already gone through training, doesn’t mean you have to stay on that exact path. Be open to similar jobs that might not be exactly what you envision doing, but also don’t have the same obligations and stresses. NASA also needs people working in logistics, planning, math, all sorts of other departments. Don’t get locked into a specific idea of what you should be doing.Make your workday work for you. Don’t be afraid to look for accommodations that can be made to minimize anxiety-inducing factors. If constant multitasking and getting pinged all day with email requests spikes your anxiety, try to set up your day in blocks that can be set aside for specific tasks. Find ways to help curve the overwhelm before it happens.Be honest, but not TOO forthcoming. If you have an anxiety disorder, it’s not a good idea to put this in your cover letter or resume, or mention it in an interview. It’s actually illegal for potential employers to ask you about a disability or medical condition, so you don’t wan t to open that can of worms yourself. Instead, focus on the positive: the skills and processes you’ve developed to handle previous jobs, or ways of doing things that have worked best for you in your professional life. For example, if you’re asked about how you handle your daily workload, you don’t have to explain that you prefer emails over phone calls or stand-up meetings because you have social anxiety. You can just note that you’ve found it to be a more efficient and productive option in managing your day-to-day. Focus on the coping mechanisms that make you a better employee all around, not just a better employee with anxiety issues.Look for unorthodox or more flexible work arrangements. If you have severe social anxiety or OCD that makes going in public difficult, think about jobs that let you telecommute or work directly from home, or may be otherwise flexible about the more traditional â€Å"9 to 5 in the office† template.Remember that youâ⠂¬â„¢re an individual, with important strengths and skills. Everyone has Life Stuff that can interfere with everyday work life. Maybe yours just happens to be an anxiety disorder. Whatever your Life Stuff is, never forget that it’s just part of you, and that you bring plenty of skills and qualifications to the table that are not defined by your Life Stuff. Embracing it as part of who you are can help you develop a more fulfilling career for yourself.So if you do have anxiety, what are some jobs and fields that might work well with your anxiety, rather than against it?Medical Laboratory TechnologistHealthcare careers are absolutely booming right now, especially ones that deal in cutting-edge technology. Medical lab technologists collect samples from patients (blood, other body fluids, tissue, and other body substances) to help make a diagnosis or determine treatment. This job typically requires a bachelor’s degree in the sciences, and may require additional licensing or certification, depending on the state. The median salary for medical laboratory technologists is $50,550, per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.Why is it good for anxiety? If you suffer from social anxiety and do better in an environment with limited interaction with others, a lab can be an ideal setting. Working in healthcare can also help provide concrete goals that let you concentrate on the patient or test at hand, and tune out other anxieties.Veterinary TechnicianVeterinary technicians (or vet techs) provide day-to-day medical care for animal patients, working with veterinarians to diagnose and treat conditions and injuries in animals. To become a veterinary technician, you’ll need at least an associate’s degree in the field, and likely state licensing/certification as well. The median salary for veterinary technicians is $31,800, per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.Why is it good for anxiety? If the idea of working with humans stresses you out, animals can be a good alternative. You’ll always have human coworkers (unless you’re Dr. Doolittle), but being able to focus on the animals and their care may help alleviate some stress and anxiety for you.Elementary School TeacherElementary school teachers are on the front lines of educating our youth. These teachers are typically responsible for teaching general topics to kids (English/reading, math, science, and social studies), or may specialize in particular subjects or disciplines (physical education, art, music, school library, etc.). Teachers have bachelor’s degrees in education, and often a master’s as well (though many teachers complete their master’s degree after they start teaching). The median salary for elementary school teachers is $54,550, per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.Why is it good for anxiety? To some, the idea of standing in front of a classroom full of expectant young faces, ready to learn, can be terrifying. But hear me out- wo rking with kids may be less intimidating than working with adults, and having the structured goals of curriculum and classroom schedules can help with anxieties.Fitness InstructorFitness instructors work with classes or individuals to develop and maintain physical fitness. They can be trainers who work one-on-one with clients, or teachers who lead classes at gyms, spas, fitness centers, etc. There is no specific education requirement to become a fitness instructor or trainer, but many states do require that instructors and trainers become licensed or certified in the areas they want to teach. . The median salary for fitness instructors is $31,160, per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.Why is it good for anxiety? Many people find that working out, eating right, and performing advanced self-care helps with anxiety. If that works well for you personally, why not have it work for you professionally too? A career as a fitness instructor can help you channel your personal challenges and anxieties into helping others achieve results as well. This also has the benefit of being a very flexible job, letting you set up class schedules and appointments based on what works for you (full-time or part-time), and specializing in particular area of fitness expertise. If Extreme Bootcamp Monster Fitness isn’t your thing, teaching early morning yoga classes might be more your speed. It’s a field that can be tailored to your personal strengths and talents.Additionally, it is not a field with a lot of distractions. If multitasking is your biggest trigger, teaching fitness lets you focus literally on what your body (or your clients’ bodies) are doing at this moment in time.Landscape DesignerLandscape designers are responsible for planning and designing outdoor spaces like yards, gardens, lawns, and other outdoor spaces. Landscape designers typically complete a bachelor’s degree, plus an internship or residency program. The median salary for landscape d esigners is $63,810, per the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.Why is it good for anxiety? Plants are known soothers, and like working with animals, it is kind of a built-in stress reliever. For people who have OCD or similar disorders, it can also be a way to focus on planning and details productively.If you have an anxiety disorder, you don’t have to suck it up and spend your career reacting to stressors. You have the power to choose a career path that works for you- and whether that’s in a field you’ve always wanted to go into, or an industry you hadn’t really considered before, you have the ability to make it work for you. Good luck!

Philosophy of Art Monroe Beardsley's Aesthetic Definition of Art Essay

Philosophy of Art Monroe Beardsley's Aesthetic Definition of Art - Essay Example The paper will review the min concepts and definitions of art proposed by Monroe Beardsley, and then, critically review the proposed concepts. In this, its ultimate role is to provide a critique of its own conditions of possibility. And, as is well known, for Beardsley this became a matter of artists acknowledging the flatness of the picture plane as a way of asserting what they took to be the essential fact about the nature of painting. Beardsley defines artwork as: "something produced with the intension of giving it the capacity to satisfy the authentic interest" (Beardsley 57). Beardsley has in mind such audience responses as noticing details, recognizing patterns, making interpretations, filling in the work, etc (Beardsley 55). It is against this understanding of avant-garde art, the genuine art of the contemporary world, that Beardsley articulates his understanding of modern art. Avant-garde art is abstract, whereas modern art ostensibly favors representation. Avant-garde art is reflexive, whereas modern art is generally imitative. Avant-garde art is introverted -- it is about itself (it is about its medium). Modern art is extroverted; it is about the world. Moreover, in being introverted, avant-garde art is detached from practical affairs and disinterested, whereas by representing the world, modern art is implicated in practical concerns (Beardsley 55). In order to accomplish this, genuine art must be difficult, whereas Beardsley believes that modern art can be enjoyed without effort. Moreover, this emphasis on the active response of the spectator in genuine art is what leads Beardsley to nominate avant-garde art as the genuine art of our times, since avant-garde art requires an active spectator to fill in its open structures. Thus, avant-garde art can be said to preserve the central value of art properly so-called. For art properly so-called has always been dedicated to engendering active spectatorship. Indeed, commitment to this role, it would appear, is a necessary feature of art for Beardsley, as it is for many other modern theorists of art. On the other hand, Beardsley maintains that art involves 'unreflective enjoyment'. It abets passive spectatorship -- of the sort putatively evinced by 'couch potatoes' -- whereas Beardsley, with the authority of a long tradition behind him, presumes that a necessary feature of genuine art in volves a commitment to active vowing (Beardsley 56). Avant-garde art accords with this profile. In order to appreciate it, a certain sort of knowledge and background information will have to come into play, if, for example, one is to identify the reflexive comment that an abstract array makes on the nature of painting. Beardsley argues: "once we know what things are artworks in a particular society, we can identify artistic activities by discovering which activities involve interaction with artworks" (Beardsley 57). To interpret such a work one must be initiated into a certain discourse and, even after one assimilates the relevant art discourse, a great deal of cogitation will still be required in order to apply that discourse with understanding to the painting at hand. Such painting demands intellectual work from the spectator because of its hermetic structure, which serves as a difficult obstacle, or puzzle,

DB7&8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

DB7 - Essay Example It should not be the case where trainers boss trainees around rather than that, they should interact as friends and knowing one another by names. Studies have shown that even a simple thing like addressing trainees by name boosts the relationship between them and the trainer (Wexler& Garry 2002). When dealing with a conflict involving trainees, a trainer has to come up with several strategies to solve it. In this case, the best conflict manager always comes out with a perfect way to stop the conflict and make sure that it may never happen in future. When solving a conflict, the trainer is supposed to be of sound judgment and be as fair as possible. This can only be achieved if the trainer is following the proper conflict management strategies. On the contrary, I experienced one incident where the trainer would shout at the trainees who were conflicting and order them stop and be friends or else he would expel them. My suggestion to resolving such a conflict will involve listening, understanding and trying to resolve the conflict. First and foremost, listening involves summoning both trainees and let them narrate their side of story. In line with that, a trainer should also ensure the other trainer is listening; this way he is sure they are communicating on the same page. After both trainees have narrated their stories, make it clear that you are there to help resolve the conflict. It is important for the trainees to understand that you don’t have a magical solution to their conflict rather you are there to help them find a solution. It is important to make sure that you maintain your objectivity even when you know 100% that it is trainer B that wronged trainer A. jumping to trainers A side will make trainer B feel like you are both ganging against him/her (Wexler& Garry 2002).. Maintaining the calmness is vital: Anger blurs ones judgment. In other words since both parties are angry and maybe almost

Systems programming-Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Systems programming-Research - Essay Example In other words, the operating system serves as an intermediary component between the user and the application-programs as well as between the application-programs and the hardware of the computer system. Thus, being an intermediary between the users of computer applications and the resources of the computer systems, the OS offers the following three fundamental services to the users: 1. Accepts user requests and processes them from the user’s program-applications and generates or displays the desired output results. 2. Loads, manages, as well as executes programs. 3. Manages the computer hardware resources such as the interfaces to networks and to other peripheral components of the computer system. The figure 1 given below schematically shows the correlation that exists among the various components of a computer system. Figure 1: The relationship of the Modern Operation System to other integrated components of the computer system. ... Management System (FMS)  ¦ Memory Management  ¦ Process Control Management and Inter-process Communication  ¦ Scheduling and Dispatching  ¦ Communication Support, Network Management, and Communication Interfaces  ¦ Secondary Storage Management  ¦ Support for System Administration  ¦ System Protection Management and Security Some OS also offer a program called system manager that is also commonly referred as a monitor or supervisor that not only deals with the competing requests or conflicts but also serves as a general controller and arbiter for the overall computer system. Although some other system functions are oftentimes handled as separate blocks, such as the accounting and error handling, however they are more likely to appear under the blocks already listed. Many modern operating systems offer some features that combine computer commands into pseudo-programs that are known as shell scripts. Moreover, the batch-oriented systems possibly combine the individual comm ands into a set of control statements that are to be executed and interpreted without user intervention one at a time for the purpose of controlling the process of a multi-step ‘‘task.’’ Every step in the task executes an individual job. As for instance, on large IBM systems, the sequence of commands employed for this purpose, developed a language called Job Control Language (JCL). Furthermore to the standard OS commands, the shell scripting languages are conventionally used for providing branch and loop commands as well as for providing other features of the computer language. Shell scripts are used as if they were actual programs. It provides the following common features:  ¦ A way to redirect input/output data to a device that is different from the one used normally such as a disk file rather

Managment Issues in the Global Family Business Essay

Managment Issues in the Global Family Business - Essay Example It has been said that most family businesses do not last more than two generations and that wealth barely lasts more than three generations (Lee 2008, p.8; Paisner 2007, p.7). Paisner (2007) notes that less than thirty percent of family-owned businesses have sustained their activities for more than two generations before shifting management, and even fewer businesses have managed to maintain their activity to the third generation. This implies that thousands of family businesses wrestle with myriad issues. Successor development, management transition, ownership transfer, creativity, and future focus are some of the issues that becloud the success of family businesses. Italian Family Business presents some of the key characteristics that determine the success or failure of family ventures all over the world. Multi, the owner of the restaurant, has to grapple with management issues and fights tooth and nail to prevent Guido from taking away the family business, something that many othe r similar businesses are grappling with. A look at the major characteristics of entrepreneurial businesses illuminates some of the gaps that might have landed Multi and his family into trouble. There is an unspoken misconception that creativity is only reserved for musicians and writers. This belief is commonplace in most family businesses. In others, there is an underlying conception regarding the usual manner of conducting business. Both mindsets can stifle business creativity, which is an antecedent to innovation, making it hard for family businesses to survive beyond two generations.

Persuasive Research PaperFinal Version Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Persuasive Research PaperFinal Version - Essay Example Brides must strive to live within their means and avoid situations that may lead to excessive borrowing. Many brides want to ensure that they organize for a wedding that can not be compared to any other. Many brides find the situation after the wedding stressful since most brides realize that there is no more happiness after the wedding day (Amie, 2012). Some brides may feel that their efforts were not worth it, and they should not have invested that heavily. In some cases, grooms get affected by the post-wedding blues. However, brides are more affected since they have a more emotional investment in the marriage than the grooms. Brides need to balance their expectations in order to avoid a lot of stress when things do not work according to their expectations (Laurie, 2014). For a majority of couples, wedding preparations are a primary concern for the bride (Theresa, 2014). Most women will want their bodies to slim for them to fit in their wedding gowns. Many brides become depressed when they attempt to lose their weight without success. Brides need to be advised that they do not need to change the size of their bodies in order to fit in the wedding gowns but appreciate the way they were created. Amie, M. G. (2012, July 26). Why women suffer from postnuptial blues. Psychology Today, 1. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/between-you-and-me/201207/wedding- bell-blues-dealing-post-wedding-depression Juliana, B. (2013, August 14). Why wedding planning is more stressful than it should be. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/in-love-and-war/201308/you-are-not-bridezilla Theresa, E. D. (2014). Pre-wedding weight loss is not all that its cracked up. Psychology Today, 1. Retrieved from

Factors in hiring educational leaders Assignment

Factors in hiring educational leaders - Assignment Example Rather than focusing on the composition of the school, those tasked with the duty of hiring of educational leaders ought to focus on data that revolve around student performance, such as the curriculum being offered, differences in instruction and the level of assessment (Reeves, 2007). The influence of the above data on student achievement by far outweighs the influence of school demographic, which will focus on issues of race, gender, ethnic minorities and the number of second language students (Reeves, 2007). An educational leader should not be picked as the better candidate for simply being white, black, Asian or for representing a large part of the student demographic. This will not only ensure that the interviewing panel does not get it wrong in the choice they make, but will also ensure that equality of all candidates is upheld, where no person gets an upper hand for belonging to this demographic or the other (Reeves, 2007). In my view, all students have the ability to learn, and educational achievement should not be pegged on one’s demographic. Educational institutions and those charged with picking their leaders should not create the wrong perception that the various student demographics have different levels of learning ability (Reeves, 2007). Instead, the education leader ought to be a person who is a uniting factor, with vast knowledge of the various cultures of the different members of their student body. This will enable them to tackle each student individually and not as a member of a certain demographic (Reeves, 2007). Educational leaders such as principals and college deans who will be more effective at their job are those who focus their attention on the current and previous actions of the institutions they hope to lead rather than the constitution of the student

Persuasive Research PaperFinal Version Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Persuasive Research PaperFinal Version - Essay Example Brides must strive to live within their means and avoid situations that may lead to excessive borrowing. Many brides want to ensure that they organize for a wedding that can not be compared to any other. Many brides find the situation after the wedding stressful since most brides realize that there is no more happiness after the wedding day (Amie, 2012). Some brides may feel that their efforts were not worth it, and they should not have invested that heavily. In some cases, grooms get affected by the post-wedding blues. However, brides are more affected since they have a more emotional investment in the marriage than the grooms. Brides need to balance their expectations in order to avoid a lot of stress when things do not work according to their expectations (Laurie, 2014). For a majority of couples, wedding preparations are a primary concern for the bride (Theresa, 2014). Most women will want their bodies to slim for them to fit in their wedding gowns. Many brides become depressed when they attempt to lose their weight without success. Brides need to be advised that they do not need to change the size of their bodies in order to fit in the wedding gowns but appreciate the way they were created. Amie, M. G. (2012, July 26). Why women suffer from postnuptial blues. Psychology Today, 1. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/between-you-and-me/201207/wedding- bell-blues-dealing-post-wedding-depression Juliana, B. (2013, August 14). Why wedding planning is more stressful than it should be. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/in-love-and-war/201308/you-are-not-bridezilla Theresa, E. D. (2014). Pre-wedding weight loss is not all that its cracked up. Psychology Today, 1. Retrieved from

Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Essay Example for Free

Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Essay The modern republics of Poland and Lithuania had been once been a single, strong nation known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This commonwealth was established in 1569. Although there were other states in the commonwealth, none of them was as powerful as Poland. The nation was on the brink of success when the rest of Europe was ravaging in the famous thirty years war between 1618 and 1648. The Commonwealth noblemen had no desire to get involved in these wars and they were able defend the country against external attacks from the Germans, Russians and the Ottoman Turks (TLK). However, the commonwealth’s supremacy and stability did not last for long and there already were clear signs of decline by the mid 17th century. The main cause of the decline was wars that were fought within and outside the commonwealth. Thus, the weakened state could not hold itself together after these wars which ultimately led to its partition. The decline of Poland was basically evincible in the legislative body Sejm. The divergent systems of the parliament grew ineffective and inefficient at a time when the deputies went verbal asserting â€Å"Liberum Veto† which gave them excessive power over national resolutions. The country’s population had decreased by big proportions as a result of wars. This made it practically impossible for the nation to succeed in its wars against other nations, though they were able to defeat the Ottomans at Vienna. This was the last success realized by the commonwealth military (Davies 24). The Szlachta (noblemen) also diminished in their ability to influence others and consequentially depreciated in military vigor. In a myriad of situations they became impotent and viewed â€Å"veto† as the only remaining legislative symbol within the commonwealth (25). The Decline of the Commonwealth In 1648, the warlike Cossacks, with the support of Russia, upstaged a rebellion against Poland. Thus the Russians began to influence the affairs of the country. Later in 1655, the Commonwealth was involved in another war with Sweden, provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa. The Swedes installed Stanislaw Leszczynski as king. However, they were defeated by the Russians in 1709 and this resulted in the reinstatement of Augustus on the throne (TLK). Augustus was at conflict with parliament and this lead to a civil war in 1717. The Russians responded by reducing the powers of the Sejm, who by now were at the centre of running Poland, came to the rescue of Augustus. This resulted in Poland being forced to cut down the size of her standing army. When Augustus died in 1733, Leszyski returned to the throne. This move was met with resistance from the Russians who forced him out and made Fredrick Augustus, a son to Augustus, king instead. Another blow to the commonwealth was the Saxon rule that lasted for sixty years. It drove the nation to the edges of lawlessness, devastating it even more. A powerful alliance between Russia, Prussia and Australia ensured that Poland’s legal system and maintain ace of order was paralyzed. The three nations formed the â€Å"Alliance of the Three Black Eagles† owing to the fact that all the three had eagles, black in color, on their coat-of-arms (Kjaergard 121). The Partitioning of the Commonwealth By the 18th century, the Commonwealth could not handle the many internal problems that were plaguing it and this made the fragile nation more vulnerable to external influences. The political system was in shambles and this soon culminated to the schism of the commonwealth. The country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian, Prussian, and Austrian powers (TLK) . The first partition was in 1772, when the Commonwealth lost 733, 000 square kilometers of land together with about four million people. Russia took most of the land while a majority of the population went to Austria. The Sejm ratified the partition agreement despite much resistance from the state’s deputies. After the first partition, there was a period of relative stability that saw to the development of a better education sector in the country. There was a rise in the number of professionals in various fields. The king initialized a healing programme, which was executed by the â€Å"Great Sejm†. The Four Year or Great Sejm came up with a new constitution (Domar 56). â€Å"Liberum Veto† was abolished under the newly formed constitution, changing how the country was governed. people were guaranteed personal freedom and more liberty was enhanced. England, France and the United States hailed the newly formed constitution. On the other hand, this step was viewed as a threat by the rulers of Austria and Russia. This led to a wide instigation of large numbers of magnate under the leadership of Branicki Ksawery, Potocki Szczesny and Rzewuski Seweryn. This was a betrayal of the commonwealth hence leading to the formation of the Targowica Confedaration in disrespect to the declarations of the newly formed constitution (Kjaergard 122) The second partition was as a result of Russian invation. The troops from Russia decided to cross the borders and immediately war broke out. Joseph Poniatowski who was the King’s nephew together with Kosciuszko Tadeusz, a supporter of the American Independence War, erected a vehement resistance although all confidence was crushed after the Prussians joined the fighting. Many people, who would otherwise have been citizens, ran away to other countries. In 1793, Prussia and Russia were obliged to sign the Second Partition Treaty. This led to about About This led to holding in of more than half of the entire nation with a population of about four million people. Later, there was a meeting at Grodno composed mainly of the Sejm which deliberated on the legal processd to make legal the process of partitioning of the country. After the partitioning, there was widespread discontent within the general population (Kostrowicka 34). The final partition in 1795 was the most devastating. A lot of Poles were evicted from their country. The King was seized and taken to prison in St. Petersburg. Other people were sent to the harsh cold deserts of Siberia and thousands more fled to other lands. Conclusion Although Poland’s history is one full of turmoil, a lot can be learnt from it. It is clear that good governance policies should be in place for a country to run smoothly. The heads of state should at the fore front providing the much needed leadership to citizens of their countries. If the Polish constitution had had good policies, and if the leaders were competent enough, then maybe the history of the Poles would be much different and better than it is.

Nature And Nurture On Neural And Cognitive Development

Nature And Nurture On Neural And Cognitive Development Throughout history, an ongoing debate has taken place regarding whether the development of certain aspects of an individuals life are affected more through nature or nurture. Those that argue for nature believe that genes influence an individuals development. Those that believe in nurtures influence claim that an individuals experience has more of an effect upon an adolescents temperament. Recently, researchers have uncovered evidence that it is not only nature or nurture that influences development, but a complex combination of both. This manuscript will attempt to cover some of the factors that influence an adolescents neural, cognitive, and emotional development. The degree to which nature and nurture influence these particular aspects of an individuals life will also be discussed. Lastly, this manuscript will briefly explore the possibility of genetics and environment off setting deficiencies in the one another. Discussion Neural Development One aspect of human development that has been focused upon in research is that of neural development. During early prenatal neural development, the brain takes its initial shape as well as forms neurons which create a foundation for future neural development. To guide this development, neurons are directed either chemically or by other cells which act as signposts. This guiding allows neurons to form the distinct sections of the brain which include the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. It is during this formation neuron specialization takes place in that like-minded cells bunch together to process certain forms of information like auditory and visual. It is still controversial amongst researchers how this specialization occurs with some researchers believing that neurons possess a protomap (Rakic, 1988) while others believe that the functions of neurons are decided by the environmental inputs received (OLeary, 1989). While most evidence found points to the latter result, th ere is still much research that needs to be performed (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). During later prenatal brain development, researchers have found that the sensory organs of the fetus have developed enough to receive and interpret information from outside of the mothers womb. One study performed found that fetuses showed recognition to a point when a familiar nursery rhyme was played for the mother carrying the fetus (Decasper, Lecaneut, Busnel, Granier-Deferre, Maugeais, 1994). In another study, researchers sewed one eye shut of several kittens at birth. Several weeks later, the researchers opened the closed eyes and found the kitten had been rendered irreversibly blind in that particular eye (Wiesel Hubel, 1965). This research provided evidence that environmental neural stimulation was important for the neurons to initiate the connections that are needed for sight which, one may assume, would be the same for hearing as well (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). After birth, researchers have found that most neural development is associated with the creation of synapses rather than the production of more neurons as well as a pruning of arbitrary neurons. This production and pruning of synapses and neurons is a result of both the introduction of chemical substances to the neurons which promote synaptic growth and the sensory information introduced to the neurons as a result of infant actions and environmental factors. As this sensory information is introduced, synapses are formed to accommodate this new information. Greenough and Black (1992) discussed how during this period, two types of synapses are created which are experience-expectant and experience-dependant. Experience-expectant synapses are synapses that are overproduced because they are synapses that have occurred regularly within the evolution of the species. It is when these synapses are not stimulated that problems such as what was discussed above with the kittens occur. The format ion of experience-dependant synapses, as the name would suggest, is dependant upon the amount of stimulation available from the experiences of the infant. Researchers have found that stimulating and complex environments have positive effects upon the growth of experience-dependant synapses in rat pups and other mammals (Kolb, Gibb, Robinson, 2003). The branching points that are left after this process are a direct result of genetics, conditions of the prenatal period, nutrition, and the infants experiences and environmental experiences after birth. Cognitive Development The next developmental area on which this manuscript shall focus is that of cognitive development. During infancy, one area researchers have focused upon is an infants ability to remember and recall. Researchers have found that infants as young as three-days-old suck harder on pacifiers when they hear their mothers voice as opposed to that of a stranger indicating a sense of recognition on the infants part (DeCasper Fifer, 1980). This recognition has been shown to improve throughout infancy. A newborns recognition period has been found to fade after a few minutes or seconds (DeCasper Spence, 1986) while, in other studies, three-month-olds have been shown to give recognition after several months (Bahrick Pickens, 1995). Likewise, recall has been shown to increase dramatically once it begins. Studies have shown that infants display recall of simple actions as early as nine months (Meltzhoff, 1988). Further studies have shown that 11-month-olds may recall simple actions for as long a s three months and 20-month-olds may recall more complex actions for as long as a year later (Bauer, 2006). Research has also been preformed on cognitive development during an individuals preschool years. One area of study included the childs understanding of numbers. For example, Antell and Keating (1983) allowed a five-month-old to watch as they placed a doll behind a screen and also as they added one additional doll. The infants displayed surprise if there was one doll present when the screen was removed while those that saw two were not. This would indicate that newborns have some knowledge of addition and subtraction. Another study by Gelman and Gallistel (1978) taught children to pick a plate with a larger number of items between two plates each with a differing quantity of items. After the researchers changed the way the items were arranged on the plate, the children expressed surprise at the change but were still able to correctly choose the plate with the larger number of items. A more recent study by Sigler and Ramani (2008) found that children who were introduced to number-based board games displayed a greater ability to correctly estimate a number on a number line than those who played games that did not include numbers. These studies give evidence for both the nature and nurture sides of the debate. Emotional Development The last developmental area focused upon within this manuscript is that of emotional development. Currently, researchers disagree upon the initial development of emotions. One argument is that an infant is born with a set of basic emotions directly related to the neural processes that are related to the emotional expression of the infant (Izard, 2004). For example, if an infant looks angry, then it is angry. In contradiction to this theory, Sroufe (1996) believes that emotions start as undifferentiated responses that develop into differentiated responses which then develop into an emotional repertoire. Sroufe argues that emotions start this way because infants lack the cognitive processes with which to assign emotional experiences. Both theories give indication of genetic origins of an individuals emotions. As emotional development continues, researchers have found that infants learn how to moderate their emotions for different situations. For example, during one study by Jahromi, Putnam, and Stifter (2004) on infants emotional responses to inoculations, the researchers observed as mothers of two-month-olds soothed their infants. The researchers found that as the infants grew older the intensity and duration of the infants crying decreased which indicates an increasing emotional control as infants grow older. The researchers believed that the change in the emotional control came about to a degree from the mothers interaction with the infant. Another study, by Tronick, Als, and Brazelton (1980), observed the exchange as mothers either responded positively or negatively towards their infants emotions. During the exchanges the mother was instructed to respond positively to the infants emotions which garnered a positive emotional reaction from the infant. The mother was then instructed to stop responding to the infant that garnered what researchers referred to as other-directed coping behaviors which are facial expressions and vocalizations designed to try and get the mother to resume their previous actions. As the mother continued this action the baby became frustrated and took part in what the researchers referred to as self-coping behaviors such as thumb sucking and rocking. This research provides evidence that an infants adult caregiver provides critical support during an infants development of emotional self regulation (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). Gene Expression When discussing human development, the question of why certain genes express themselves while others do not is, many times, brought to the forefront. Each gene is made up of alleles that a child receives from both their mother and their father. Alleles may be dominant or recessive. If an infant receives two dominant or two recessive alleles, the infant will display those characteristics. Sometimes, in the case of two dominant alleles, alleles express codominance such as in the case of a dominant Type A blood allele and dominant Type B blood allele the infant will express Type AB blood. If an infant receives one dominant and one recessive gene, the infant will display the characteristics of the dominant allele. For example, if a child receives a recessive allele for red hair from both parents, then the infant will develop red hair. If the same child had received a dominant allele for brown hair from one of the parents, the child would have developed with brown hair. This phenomenon ma y also be used to explain why certain genetic disorders express themselves when they do such as the defective recessive allele for sickle-cell anemia or the defective dominant allele for progeria (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). Nature and Nurture Off Setting One would assume that, based upon the recent evidence that development is affected by both nature and nurture, that, in certain situations, one may be used to off set a deficiency in the other. The results provided in the following studies offer evidence supporting the phenomenon of epigenesis which is the control of genetic expression through correlation of both environmental and genetic factors (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). One study by Caspi, McClay, Moffitt, Mill, Martin, Craig, et. al. (2002) conducted to find out how different MAOA alleles, which release the enzymes controlling production of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, affect childrens susceptibility to the negative effects of abusive environments in the early years of life. The researchers found that in individuals that had experienced early child abuse, there was a link between the low MAOA allele and aggression. Likewise, in individuals that had not experienced abuse as a child, there was no correlation between the production of MAOA and aggression. Reiss and Neiderhiser (2000) discussed how some irritable children appear to inherit some qualities such as irritability from their parents which evokes a hostile environment from those around them only reinforcing their irritable tendencies. They further discussed how these tendencies may be off set by environmental circumstances that do not sustain their irritable behavior. Results such as those provided by this research along with many others shed light upon one of the many possibilities unlocked by the further research of the nature and nurture controversy. Conclusion The nature versus nurture controversy has been strongly debated within the discipline of developmental psychology for many years. This manuscript cited many studies which have given evidence to the degree of influence both nature and nurture has on the neural, cognitive, and emotional development of an individual. From the results of these studies, it is easy to see that development is impacted by both nature and nurture in their own unique ways. Studies have even shown that it may be possible to off set certain deficiencies in genetics with environmental aspects or vice versa. The results of these studies provide important insight into the behavior of an individual, how they may have developed that way, and how that particular form of development may be reversed or avoided in others. There is no doubt that as the depth of research into the nature versus nurture controversy grows those within the psychological community, as well as numerous other disciplines, will be able to assist a larger number of individuals with developmental problems with increasing levels of accuracy.

Joke :: essays research papers

DIET QUIZIf you answer "yes" to eight or more of these questions, you may want to consider restricting your future calorie intake: * Has your neighborhood grocery store ever offered to send for you with a limo? * After ordering lunch at a fast-food drive-through window, has it ever been delivered to your car on a hand truck? * Within the last month, have you burned out more than two refrigerator bulbs? * Do people often decide to follow you up on the next elevator? * Has your fork ever suddenly come up missing? * Have you ever broken out in a cold sweat when you realized you were more than a mile from the nearest Taco Bell? * Is there a restraining order against you from the Association of All-You-Can-Eat Restaurants? * On a recent Caribbean cruise, did the captain order you to stay in the center of the ship? * Do your picnics in the country involve renting a U-Haul? * Does the left side of your car seem to bottom out a lot? * Does your street always seem to have more potholes than other streets? ------------------------------------------------------------ FREE ** Business Cards ** FREE Want to pretend your an astronaut or a CEO of a major company? or do you have a real job? Get 250 full color cards at a value of $80.00 to $120.00 absolutely FREE: http://mailbits.net/ad/bcard.asp -------------------------------------------------------------Quick Wit: Legend has it that President Calvin Coolidge once entertained some friends from the country in the White House. His friends were concerned that they display proper table manners to win the President's respect, so they observed Coolidge very carefully and followed his example in detail. The meal passed smoothly, then coffee was served.

Descriptive Essay - Our Mountain Cabin -- Descriptive Essay, Descriptiv

Our Mountain Cabin The ruckus from the bottom of the truck is unbearable, because of the noise and excessive shaking. As we slowly climbed the mountain road to reach our lovely cabin, it seemed almost impossible to reach the top, but every time we reached it safely. The rocks and deep potholes shook the truck and the people in it, like a paint mixer. Every window in the truck was rolled down so we could have some leverage to hold on and not loose our grip we needed so greatly. The fresh clean mountain air entered the truck; it smelt as if we were lost: nowhere close to home. It was a feeling of relief to get away from all the problems at home. The road was deeply covered with huge pines and baby aspen trees. Closely examining the surrounding, it looks as if it did the last time we were up here. We slowly crept around the corner, finally sneaking a peek at our cabin. As I hopped out of the front seat of the truck, a sharp sense of loneliness came over me. I looked around and saw nothing but the leaves on the trees glittering from the constant blowing wind. Catching myself standing staring around me at all the beautiful trees, I noticed that the trees have not changed at all, but still stand tall and as close as usual. I realized that the trees surrounding the cabin are similar to the being of my family: the feelings of never being parted when were all together staying at our cabin. As I walked closer to the cabin, which has been abandoned since last summer, I noticed certain materials are stored away, for the winter, such as the grill, which is taken off the hinges around the fire pit, and put underneath the cabin deck. The canoe is upside down and tightly snugged underneath the cabin deck. I also noticed the picnic tab... ...ing used to them not living with me for college, I've realized that the cabin reassures the family bond, we have so greatly between each other, and gives the family hope that we can always have a place where the family, as one, is welcomed. Although we live in different cities, this place gives me the belief that my family will always be there. When the whole family is up at the cabin, it seems as if nothing has changed, as if the pine trees have not grown apart, or any taller. Th pine trees drop their children (pinecones) right next to the parent, never being able to leave. This symbolizes the feeling I get about my family while being up in the mountains at our cabin. We then turned off the driveway, making sure to roll down our windows, so we can breathe the fresh mountain air, at least until the next time we come back, and once again start the bumpy road home.

Nervous System and Brain Stem

Biopsychology: A specialty that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes. Evolution: The gradual process of biological change that occurs in a species as it adapts to its environment new generations change as they adapt to changing environments Evolution has fundamentally shaped psychological processes because it favors genetic variations that produce adaptive behavior Charles Darwin:Wondered if animals were related and if all creations, even humans, could share a common ancestry made the controversial case for the evolution of lifeNatural selection:The driving force behind evolution, the fittest organisms are selected by the environment, the best adapted will flourish and the least adapted will die out. Darwin never said humans came from monkeys, but that they both had a common ancestor Genetics and inheritance: Genotype: Genetic MakeupPhenotype: Physical and behavioral characteristics (observable characteristics) not all biological, also can be changed by nutrition, disease, stress, and poor medical care causing birth defects Genome: Set of genetic information contained within a cell DNA:A complex molecule that stores biological information Genes: The words that make up the instruction manual (genome) Chromosomes:Tightly coiled structures in which genes are organized, consist of DNA Nucleotides: letters that form genes, there are 4Sex chromosomes: The X and Y chromosomes that determine physical sex characteristics XX-female XY-male , fathers determine sex Genes influence our psychological characteristicsNever attribute psychological characteristics to genetics alone, even identical twins Race and human variations: Certain features of skin color and other physical characteristics are common among people who trace their ancestry to the same part of the world tropical ancestry have darker skin to protect them from the sun, and lighter skin for less sunny places There are no genetic differences for races, race is more of a socially defin ed term Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis: Testing fetus at a very oung age to ensure a genetically healthy fetus Some of these clinics also offer gender selection and ‘savior siblings' How does the body communicate internally?The nervous system reacts first:accelerate your heart rate and tense your muscles for action Endocrine system sends follow-up messages:send hormones which also accelerate heart and tense muscles they work together in stressful and happier situations and even during low arousal states the brain is the chief that manages the cooperation of the nervous and endocrine systemsThe brain coordinates the bodys 2 communication systems, the nervous and endocrine, which use similar chemical processes to communicate with targets throughout the body Neuron (nerve cell) : cell that receives and transmits information to other cells of the body, bundles are called nerves Sensory neuron (afferent neurons): A cell that carries messages towards the brain from sense receptor s Motor neuron (efferent neurons): A cell that carries messages away from the brain to the muscles and glandsInterneurons: A cell that relays messages between nerve cells, especially in the brain and spinal cord Dendrites: Branched fibers that extend outward from the cell body and carries information into the neuron Soma: part of the cell containing the nucleus or cell body, houses chromosomes Axon: An extending fiber that conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons Resting potential: The electrical charge of the axon in its inactive state, when neuron is ready to ‘fire'Action potential: When the neuron ‘fires' due to a change in electrical charge across the cell membrane of axon All or none principle: action potential in the axon occurs either completely or not at all when many neurons fire too easily the result can be epileptic seizure Synapse:gap that serves as a communications link between neurons or between neurons and muscles or glands they serve Ter minal buttons:Tiny bulb like structures at the end of the axon that carry the message into the synapse Synaptic transmission: The relaying of information across the synapse Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger that relays neural messages across the synapse, many are also hormones Reuptake:The process by which unused neurotransmitters are drawn back into the vesicles of their originating neuron 7 important neurotransmitters:Dopamine:Produces feeling of pleasure or reward, imbalances cause schizophrenia and Parkinson, cocaine, amphatamine, and alcohol affect the action of this transmitter Serotonin:Regulates, sleep, dreams, mood, pain, appetite, sex drive, imbalances cause depression, anxiety, OCD, Prozac and LSD affect the action of this transmitter Norepinnephrine:controls heart rate, sleep, stress, sexual responsiveness, appetite, imbalances cause high blood pressure, depression, Tricyclic, anti depressants, and beta blockers affect the action of this transmitter Acetycholine:invol ved in learning and memory, imbalances cause muscular disorders, alzheimers, nicotine, black widow spider venom, botulism toxin, barbiturates affect the action of this transmitterGABA:Inhibitory transmitter, inbalances cause anxiety and epilepsy, minor tranquilizers and alcohol affect the action of this transmitter Glutamate:Excitatory transmitter, excess release of glutamate causes brain damage after stroke, PCP affects the action of this transmitter Endorphins:Pleasurable sensations and control of pain, imbalances come from opiate addiction, opiates like morphine, heroin, and methadone effect the action of this transmitter Plasticity: the nervous systems ability to change or adapt as a result of an experience or physical damage plasticity can not compensate for extensive injurys just as paralyzed individuals may implant computer chips in the brain to restore some forms of controlGlial cells: A cell that provides structural support for neurons, also provide the myelin sheath of the axon for some neurons nervous system: Network of neurons in the body, including the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and their subdivisions Central nervous system:brain and spinal cord Reflex:simple unlearned response triggered by stimuli done by spinal cord Contralateral:Each side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body Peripheral Nervous system:Connects the central nervous system with the rest of the body (somatic and autonomic) Somatic nervous system: Carries sensory information to the brain and voluntary messages to the musclesAutonomic nervous system: Sends communications between the brain and the internal organs and glands Sympathetic division: ends messages to internal organs and glands that help us respond to stressful or emergency situations Parasympathetic: monitors the routine operations of the internal organs and returns body to calmer functioning after arousal by the sympathetic divisionThe endocrine system: The hormone system, ch emical messenger system including pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes in a crisis this system releases epinephrine or adrenalin sustaining the bodies fight or flight reaction Hormones: chemical messengers used by the endocrine system and the nervous systemHormonal functions of major endocrine glands: Anterior Pituitary: ovaries and testes, breast milk production, metabolism, reactions to stress Posterior Pituitary: conservation of water in the body, breast milk secretion, uterus contractions Thyroid: metabolism, physical growth and development Parathyroid: calcium levels in the body Pancreas: glucose (sugar) metabolismAdrenal glands: fight or flight response, metabolism, sexual desire (especially in women) Ovaries: development of female sexual characteristics, production of eggs or ova Testes: development of male sexual characteristics, sperm production, sexual desire in men Pituitary gland: the ‘master gland' that oversees all these endocrine responses Agonists: drugs or other chemicals that enhance or mimic the effects of neurotransmitters antagonists: drugs or other chemicals that inhibit the effects of neurotransmittersNeural pathways: bundles of nerve cells that follow generally the same route and employ the same neurotransmitter How does the brain produce behavior and mental processes? Thoughts and feelings originate from the brain (love doesn't come from the heart) brain is a collection of distinct modules that work together like the components of a computer the brain is composed of many specialized modules that work together to create mind and behavior EEG(Electroencephalograph):A device for recording brain waves, typically by electrodes places on the scalp. The recording is an EEG Can reveal abnormal waves which cause epilepsy not very preciseWilder Pen field mapped the brain with electric probes which showed him that the brain's surface had distinct areas with distinct functions Brain Scans: help neurosurgeons to locate abnormalities such as tumors or stroke related damage without opening the skull CT(computerized tomography):uses x-rays taken of the brain at different angles and then combined into an image PET(positron emission tomography):Imaging technique that relies on the detection of radioactive sugar consumed by active brain cellsMRI(magnetic resonance imaging): Imaging technique that relies on cell's responses in a high-intensity magnetic field fMRI(functional magnetic resonance imaging):form of MRI that records brain structure and activity PET and fMRI show which parts of the brain are active during a particular task MRI ecvelsat distinguishing the fine details of brain structures non of these can detect processes that occur only briefly (shift in attention, startle response) no scanning technique gives biopsychologists a perfectly clear view of all of the brains activity Three layers of the brain Brain stem: the most primitive of the brains three major layers, includes medulla, pons, and reticular formation medulla:Controls breathing and heart ratePons:Regulates brain activity during sleep or dreaming Reticular formation:keeps the brain alert and attentive to new stimulation Limbic system:middle layer, involved in emotion and memory, includes thee hippocampus,amygdalaa, hypothalamus, and some pleasure centers Hippocampus:Establishes long term memories amydala:memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression Hypothalamus:Brains blood testing lab, constantly monitors blood to determine condition of the bodThalamus: brain's central ‘relay station', all messages that enter or exit the brain go through the thalamus controls sleep and awake states of consciousness cerebrum cerebellum:the ‘little brain' attached to the brain stem, responsible for oordinated movements cerebral hemispheres:large symmetrical halves of the brain located atop the brain stem cerebral cortex:Thin gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres, carries on major portion of higher men tal processes like thinking and perceiving corpus callosum: the band of nerve cells connecting and enabling communication between the two cerebral hemispheresThe frontal lobes:cortical regions at the front of the brain especially involved in movement and in thinking motor cortex: A narrow vertical strip of cortex in the frontal lobes, controls voluntary motor movement Mirror neuron:A class of neuron that fires in response to ‘mirroring' observation of another person's actions or emotions The left frontal lobes: production of speechThe parietal lobes:Involved in touch sensation and perceiving spatial relationships Somatosensory cortex: A strip of the parietal lobe involved in sensations of touch The temporal lobes:Cortical lobes that process hearing, including speech, involved in storing long term memories Occipital lobes: The cortical regions that house the visual cortex Visual cortex: The visual processing area of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes Association Cortex: Critical regions throughout the brain that combine information from various other parts of the brainCerebral Dominance:The tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions, such as language or perception of spatial relationships The left side is more active in language and speech the right side is for visual and spatial and interprets others emotional responses and their nonverbal communication signals the right frontal lobes control the negative emotions such as fear and anger the left frontal lobes control the positive emotions such as joy cerebral dominance patterns are not always the same from one person to another men on average have slightly larger brains, thought to be part of body size and not much other importance CH 3Sensation: The process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, sight, taste, touch, or smell Perception: A mental process that elaborates and assigns meaning to the i ncoming sensory patterns The brain senses the world indirectly because the sense organs convert stimulation into the language of the nervous system (neural messages) 3 attributes common to all senses: transduction-process that converts information carried by the stimulus , such as light or sound waves, into the form of neural messages sensory adaption-loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while thresholds bsolute threshold-minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a sensory experience (how soft can music be and still be heard) if it is above your thresholds, you sense it varies from person to person and varies in an individual depending on mental alertness and physical condition difference threshold (JND)-minimum amount by which a stimulus can be changed and the difference be detected half the time large when the stimulus intensity is high and small when low Webers law: The size of the JND is proportional to the intensity o f the stimulus We are built to detect changes in stimulation and relationships among stimuli Signal detection theory: Theory that states that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector.Sensory Adaptation: Loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while (adjusting to the temperature of a cold pool) The sense all operate in much the same way, but each extracts different information and sends it to its own specialized processing region in the brain Vision: Retina:The thin light-sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball. The retina contains millions of photoreceptor and other nerve cells the retina is where the transduction of light into neural signals occurs Photoreceptors: Light sensitive cells (neurons) in the retina that concert light energy to neural impulses, these receptors are as far as light gets into the visual system. Rods: Photoreceptors in the retina sensitive to dark lighting but not to colorCones: photoreceptor in the retina sensitive to colors but not dim light Fovea-tiny area of sharpest vision in the retina ipolar cells-collect impulses from photoreceptors and send them to the ganglion cells optic nerve-the bundle of neurons that caries visual information from the retina to the brain blind spot- the point where the optic nerve exits the eye and there are no photoreceptors, anything in this area cannot be seen visual cortex creates visual images from the information received from the eyes in this cortex, brain turns neural impulses into visual sensations of color, form, boundary, and movement brightness- A sensation caused by intensity(amplitude) of light waves color-(hue) not a property of things in the external world , a psychological sensation created in the brain from information from the eyes from the wavelength of visual lightElectromagnetic spectrum-the entire range of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves, x rays, microwaves, and visible light visible spectrum-the tiny part of electromagnetic spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive, may be different from our own trichromatic theory-the idea that colors are sensed by three different types of cones sensitive to light in the red blue and green wavelengths, this theory explains color processing in the cones of the retina opponent-process theory-the idea that cells in the visual system process colors in complementary pairs, such as red or green , yellow or blue, this theory explains color sensation from the bipolar cells onward in the visual system afterimages-sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed, most are negative after images, which appear in reversed colors color blindness-genetic disorder that prevents an individual from discriminating certain colors, most common form is red green color blindnessHearing: Frequency-highness or lowness of sound, pitch amplitude-the physical strength of a wave. Height of the wave , when turning down vol, you r turning down amplitude, loudness timbre-complex quality of a sound wave, helps you distinguish different voices how we hear: sound waves are relayed to the inner ear, vibrating waves make their way through the ear canal to the ear drum or tympanic membrane, vibrates middle ear, sends to cochlea cochlea-main organ of hearing focuses he vibrations on the basilar membrane basilar membrane converts vibrations into neural messages neural messages travel to the auditory cortex in the brain Hearing loss-from damage of the hair cells in the cochlea Vision-stimulus is light waves, receptor is rods and conesHearing-stimulus is sound waves, receptor is hair cells in basilar membrane Skin senses-stimulus is external contact, receptor is nerve endings in skin Smell-stimulus is volatile substances, receptor is hair cells in olfactory epithelium Taste-stimulus is soluble substances, receptor is taste buds on tongue Pain- stimulus is extreme stimuli, receptors are pain receptors Kinesthatic and v estibular senses-stimulus is body position, movement and balance, receptors are hair cells in semicircular canals and neurons connected to muscles joints and tendons Vestibular senses-the sense of body orientation with respect to gravity, associated with inner ear and in fact is carried to the brain on a Branch of the auditory nerve Kinesthetic sense-the sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each otherSmell: olfaction-sense of smell pheromones-chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of their species. Often used by animals as sexual attractants, unclear if humans use them Taste: Gustation-the sense of tasteSkin senses: sensory system for processing touch, warmth, cold, texture, and pain synesthesia-the mixing of sensations across sensory modalities, as in tasting shapes or seeing colors associated with numbers Phantom limbs-sensations experienced by people who have lost a limb coming from the missing body part Gate control theo ry-an explanation for pain control that proposes we have a neural ‘gate' that can, under some circumstances, block incoming pain signals if you experience pain you can take drugs like aspirin or you can get morphine which suppresses the pain messages in the spinal cord placebo-appears to be a drug, but is not (sugar pill) placebo effect-a response to a placebo caused by the belief that it is a real drug Perception gives meaning to sensation, so perception produces an interpretation of the world, not a perfect representation of itPercept: The meaning product of perception, often an image that has been associated with concepts, memories of events, emotions, and motives What pathway-A neural pathway, projecting from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe, which involves identifying objects where pathway-A neural pathway the projects visual information to the parietal lobe, responsible for locating objects in space blindsight-being conscious of information in the what path way but not necessarily in the where pathway feature detectors-cells in the cortex that specialize in extracting certain features of a stimulus binding problem:how the brain combines the results from many senses into a single percept top-down process: memories and past experiences in our brain tell perception bottom up process: the sensed characteristics in the stimuli exert strong influence on our perceptions perceptual constancy-the ability to recognize the same object as remaining ‘constant' under different conditions, such as distance or location inattentional blindness-a failure to notice changes occurring in ones visual field, caused by narrowing the focus of ones attention change blindness-failure to notice that a visual scene has changed from the way it had appeared previously, requires comparing a scene to one from the past illusion-incorrect perception of a stimulus pattern especially one that fools others ambiguous figures-images that can be interpreted in more than one way.No right way to see an ambiguous figure Gestalt psychology: believed that much of perception is shaped by innate factors built into the brain figure- a part of a pattern that stands out against the ground ground-part of a pattern that does not command attention-background closure-gestalt principle that identifies the tendency to fill in gaps in figures and to see incomplete figures as complete Laws of perceptual grouping-the gestalt principles of similarity, proximity, continuity, and common fate.Suggest how our brains prefer to group stimulus elements together to form a percept Law of similarity-gestalt principle, we tend to group similar objects together in out perceptions Law of proximity-gestalt principle, we tend to group objects together when they are near each other Law of continuity-gestalt principle, we prefer perceptions of connected and continuous figures to disconnected and disjointed ones Law of common fate-gestalt principle, we tend to group similar objects to gether that share a common motion of destination Law ofPragnanz- Gestalt principle, the simplest organization, requiring the least cognitive effect, will emerge as a figure, full figures such as a closed circle Learning based inference- the view that perception is primarily shaped by learning rather by innate factors perceptual set-readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context someone afraid interprets an unfamiliar sound as a threat, set of words, word missing binocular cues-information taken in by both eyes that aids in depth perception, including binocular convergence and retinal disparity Monocular cues-information about depth that relies on the input of just one eye and includes relative size, light and shadow, relative motion and atmospheric pressure CH 8Cognitive Neuroscience-An interdisciplinary field involving cognitive psychology, neurology, biology, computer science, linguistics, and other specialists who are interested in the connection between mental proc esses and the brain Nonconscious process-Any brain process that does not involve conscious processing, including both preconscious memories and unconscious processes can perform many jobs at the same time (walk, chew gum, breath) Consciousness-The process by which the brain creates mental model of our experience, most common consciousness occurs during wakefulness, although there can be altered states Attention- a process by which consciousness focuses on a single item of ‘chunk' in working memory Tools for studying consciousness- fMRI, EEG, PET Freud's levels of consciousness:Preconscious- A special unconscious storehouse for information no currently in conscious but readily available to the conscious (like your phone number) The unconscious-A part of the mind that processes below the level or awareness, emotional memories, desires, and feelings that would be threatening if brought back to consciousness James stream of consciousness-walking consciousness is like a flowing str eam carrying ever changing sensations, perceptions, thoughts, memories, feelings, and desires, this stream includes awareness of ourselves and of stimulation from our environment, can also include physical sensations from within like hunger or pain James said consciousness has 2 levels :an area of focus for what we are focusing our attention on, and a peripheral conscious to encompass the feelings that give meaning to our focus The computer metaphor-likens consciousness to the information and images that appear on a computer screen nonconscious is the electronic activity behind the scene, which most of the time operates in parallel with consciousness Three important functions of the consciousness:Consciousness restricts our attention-(restriction) because it processes information serially, it limits what you notice and think about,keeps your brain from being overwhelmed by stimulation cannot read while listening to music consciousness provides a mental ‘meeting place'-(combina tion) meeting place where sensation can combine with memory, emotions, motives, and a host of other psychological processes (perception) consciousness allows us to create a mental model of the world-(manipulation) a model we can manipulate in our minds, we don’t just operate in the moment, we make a model that draws on memory and brings the past and the future into awareness.Coma-An unconscious state, during which a person lacks the normal cycles of sleep and wakefulness, usually only lasts a few days (between vegetative and minimally conscious states) Consciousness fluctuates in cycles that correspond to our biological rhythms and to patterns of stimulation in our environmental Daydreaming-A common (and quite normal) variation of consciousness in which attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies and away from the immediate situation daydreaming is automatic when we are in a restful state or not focused on something Circadian Rhythms-A pattern that repea ts every 24 hours such as sleep and wakefulness cycle, jet lag Main Events of sleep: REM sleep-stage that occurs approximately every 90 minutes, marked by bursts of rapid eye movement occurring under closed eye lids each REM period gets longer and longer Non-REM-the recurring periods, mainly associated with the deeper state of sleep, when a sleeper is not showing rapid eye movements Sleep paralysis- A condition in which a sleeper is unable to move any of the voluntary muscles except the eyes (normally occurs during REM) Stages of sleep: Stage 1:Slower theta waves, faster beta wavesStage 2:Short burst of fast electrical activity that reliably signal the end of stage 1 Stage 3 &4:heart rate and breathing slow down , beta brain waves slow, delta waves appear DEEPEST sleep in stage 4 as stage 4 ends sleeper climbs back up the stages backwards REM sleep: fast beta waves, rapid eye movement, after REM sleeper slips back into stage 2 REM rebound- A condition of increased REM sleep caused b y REM sleep deprivation Sleep debt-A sleep deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep required for optimal functioning Isrealites interpreted dreams as messages from the gods Egyptians tried to influence dreams by sleeping in temples dedicated to the god of dreaming Chinese are scared to dream because they think the soul wanders outside the body Freud’s theory of dreams: manifest content-the story line of a dream, taken at face value without interpretation latent content- the symbolic meaning or objects and events in a dream Activation synthesis theory- the theory that dreams begin with random electrical activation coming from the brain stem.The storyline of dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of this random activity Insomnia- involving insufficient sleep, the inability to fall asleep quickly, frequent arousals, or early awakenings Sleep Apnea- A respiratory disorder in which the person intermittently stops breathing many times while asleep Night terrors-dee p sleep episodes that seem to produce terror, what made the person scared is usually forgotten on awakening, usually found in children narcolepsy-a disorder of REM sleep, involving sleep-onset periods in sudden daytime REM-sleep attacks An altered state of consciousness occurs when some aspect of normal consciousness is modified by mental, behavioral, or chemical means Hypnosis-A state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation, heightened suggestibility, and focused attention Hypnotizability- susceptibility measured by a persons responsiveness to standardized suggestions hypnosis an be used for dental and medical uses, psychological treatmentMeditation-A state of consciousness often induces by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions, and minimizing external stimulation Psychoactive drug-chemical that affects mental processes and behavior by its effect on the brain Hallucinogen-a drug that creates hallucinations or alters perception of the external envi ronment and inner awareness Opiates-Highly addictive drug, derived from opium, that can produce a profound sense of sell being and has strong pain relieving properties Depressant-drug that slows down mental and physical activity by inhibiting transmission of nerve impulses in the brain (alcohol, barbiturates) Stimulants-speed up brain and mental and physical responses (cocain, amphetamine, nicotine, caffeine)General Anesthetic-substance that suppresses consciousness and awareness of pain, some produce sedation and immobility Tolerance-the reduces effectiveness a drug has after repeated use psychical dependence-the body adjusts to and comes to need and drug for every day functioning addiction- a person continues to use a drug despite its adverse effects and many attempts to stop withdrawal-A pattern of uncomfortable or painful physical symptoms and cravings experienced by the user when the level of drug is decreased or the drug is eliminated psychological dependency-a desire to obtai n or use a drug, even though there is no physical dependence